Maximus, Tattius (fl. second century c. e.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161 C. E.)
Maximus was given the difficult task of succeeding GAV-lUS MAXIMUS, who retired in 158 after a tenure of 20 years. Gaius Tattius Maximus served from 156 to 158 as the prefect of the vigiles before being promoted to command the Guard. Upon his death (date uncertain) he was replaced by two men, Cornelius Repentinus and Furius Victorinus.
Maximus of Ephesus (d. 370 or 371 c. e.) Leading Neoplatonic philosophers of the fourth century c. e.
Maximus was a student of Aedesius and thus a recipient of the philosopher lamblichus’s pseudo-mystical and magical variation on neoplatonism. Maximus specialized in theurgy, centering on divination, although his most famous prophecies were either obvious or never came true. Nevertheless, his reputation attracted the young
JULIAN (the future emperor) in the 350s; Maximus and several other pagan philosophical masters became his tutors, introducing the prince to the mysteries of pagan ism and ensuring his total conversion to the pagan cause. Maximus claimed that it was through the use of divination that he predicted the rise of Julian to the throne.
By 361, in fact, Julian was emperor. The ruler summoned his teacher to Constantinople, where Maximus took up residence as one of the leading non-Christian intellectuals at court, remaining at Julian’s side for much of his reign. With Maximus’s favorable divinations, Julian set out on his war against the persians but died during the campaign, with Maximus at his bedside. Julian’s demise t e minated the favored status of the pagans, although Maximus gained the trust of Emperor Valens for a brief time. In 370 or 371, he was arrested and executed for supposed complicity in a plot against Valens. Eunapius, in his Lives of the Sophists, wrote about Maximus.
Maximus of Tyre (c. 125-185 c. e.) Itinerant Sophist lecturer and pseudo-Platonic philosopher Maximus was clearly familiar with the works of plato, for he quoted him extensively and claimed to be a follower, but his gifts were limited and his originality wanting. Lectures were delivered in Athens, although all of the 41 extant addresses given by Maximus were in Rome during the reign of Emperor Commodus (177-192 C. E.).
Media Atropatene one of the oldest regions of persia, between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers on the west and the Caspian Sea on the east; a fertile, heavily populated region, long important to the effective administration of the parthian and the later persian Empires. Media was surrounded by key geographical or political sites: Armenia to the north, the Caspian Sea to the east, Assyria to the south, and Mesopotamia to the west.
See PERSIA.
Medicine Medicine was bequeathed to the Romans through the traditions of the Egyptians, the Chaldaeans, the Greeks, and the Etruscans. As was true with many other elements of Roman life, the Romans received their first organized introduction to the medical world from Etruria, and later, in a far more constructive sense, from the Greeks. Rome had little original medical knowledge. There was an association of anatomy and disease with the forces of the occult, and thus the care of the sick was left to the soothsayers, the haruspices, or the best method of finding relief was determined by consultation with the SIBYLLINE BOOKS.
Two developments caused major changes in Roman medicine. First there was the contact with the Etruscans and especially the Greeks, who brought with them an increased level of sophistication; secondly, with Rome’s conquests in the Mediterranean, large numbers of slaves became available (see slavery), many of whom knew medicine and practiced it for their owners. This created the image that most physicians were of the lower class. In fact, during the late Republic and into the imperial epoch, Roman doctors, medici, emerged as a genuine, albeit small, class of professionals.
Cato may have hated the Greek practitioners of medicine at Rome, but even Caesar eventually called one a friend, the doctor who stayed with him at Pharmacusa while the ransom was collected to pay the pirates who had kidnapped him. Increasingly, private physicians, especially those in the service of great men, were widely respected. The best example in the early days of the empire was Antonius Musa, the author and man responsible for many years of medical service to Emperor Augustus.
Writers in the Greek tradition earned enough money to support themselves by helping to advance the general state of medicine throughout the Roman world. celsus, from the early first century C. E., presented encyclopedically the field of medicine. Scribonius largus, practiti oner to the Emperor Claudius, centered on prescriptions for all kinds of ailments. pliny the elder, in his Natural History, showed the means by which a doctor could find cures from the world of nature. Above them all stood galen. From Pergamum, Galen’s career through the second century C. E. stood as a symbol of both his genius and the manner in which medicine had evolved. He studied at P ergamum and at Alexandria, under the foremost Egyptian anatomists before perfecting his skills treating gladiators. His reputation brought him to Rome, where even Marcus Aurelius paid for his services. With Galen came an end to progressive treatment and imagination. Roman medicine had reached its peak and would advance no furt h e r.
The education of a physician was a highly individualized matter. A hopeful student had to find a doctor willing to serve as his (or in some cases, her) tutor. This teacher would be someone of high reputation preferably but not so busy as to make instruction a problem. Medicine was still divided into the various areas of expertise: anatomy and physiology, diagnostics, pathology, hygiene, therapeutics, and the veterinary arts. Surgery was an essential part of a practice, especially for the doctors appointed to the legions, an office that was regulated by the time of Trajan in the second century c. E. Because of the obviously irregular nature of the training, mastery of the medical arts must have taken years. The experience gained in the apprenticeship to a great doctor would have been considerable, and the rewards of these many lessons would have been worth the wait for the lucky few. The first Greek physician to set up practice in Rome was Archagathus, who in 219 b. c.e. had his offices paid for at public expense. His business was no doubt excellent, setting the stage for other successful doctors to come to Rome. Asclapio called Cicero his friend, and Eudemus held a position of trust with Livia, closer in some regards than Antonius Musa with Augustus.
Monetarily, a good doctor in Rome who treated nobility could earn vast amounts of money. According to Pliny, such medical experts as Albutius and Rubrius managed to amass 250,000 sesterces a year. During the reign of Claudius, Quintus Stertinius was granted 500,000 sesterces from the emperor. With his brother, also a physician, Quintus was able to spend a fortune improving Naples and, again with his sibling, still retire owning 30 million sesterces.
Mediolanum Large city situated on a plain in northern Italy, below the Alps and between the Ticino and Adda rivers; relatively unimportant, despite its location, until the late third century c. e., when it became one of the most prominent metropolises in the Roman Empire. Mediolanum (modern Milan) began as a creation of the Gallic tribes and served for many years as the city of the Insubres in Gallia Cisalpina. It received little attention from Roman historians, save from Polybius, who mentioned it as part of his coverage of the war between Rome and Gaul. In 222 b. c.e., Cn. Scipio and Marcellus captured it, compelling the Insubres to submit. Henceforth, Mediolanum belonged to the Romans, becoming first a municipium and then a colonia.
Throughout the remaining years of the Republic and into the era of the empire, Mediolanum remained in re l a-tive obscurity The Roman Civil Wars in the first century B. C.E. bypassed the site completely Slowly, however, economic prosperity became possible because of several key developments. Mediolanum’s position in Italy placed it directly along a number of key lines of communication. Gallia Narbonensis, Gaul, the Alps, and Raetia kept in touch with Rome via the city Further, Mediolanum acted as a support center for Aquileia, the Italian gateway to the Danubian provinces. In the face of economic challenges from the provinces, both communities realized the importance of meeting the threat to Italy’s industrial suprem acy by adapting to market needs. They thus epitomized the m ore imaginative response of the nort h e rn Italians to the growing wealth of Gaul, Spain, and Africa. Mediolanum and Aquileia began manufacturing glass, wine, and especially (for Milan) weapons. Where the south became stagnant, Mediolanum was rewarded for its ingenuity
Emperor Diocletian reformed the entire imperial system, downgrading the status of both Rome and Italy The West of the Roman Empire, though, still needed a capital, one that was strong, ideally close to both the Rhine and Danube frontiers, but one free from the influence of Rome. In 291 c. e., Diocletian met with his colleague Maximian at Mediolanum, and two years later Maximian returned, this time as Augustus (coemperor). The city was to be his new headquarters from which he would rule the Western imperial territories. Maximian improved its general appearance, and from 293 until the early years of the fifth century, all subsequent emperors of the West maintained a residence there. In 404, the Emperor Hono-rius felt that he could not defend himself adequately there, choosing to move the court to Ravenna, on the Adriatic. There it remained until the end of Roman rule. But Milan continued to wield genuine power. The famous St. Ambrose held his see there (374-397 C. E.), and the Lombard kings later chose it as their capital.
Mediolanum was built on the Lambrus River, in the valley of the Addus and Ticinus. The surrounding countryside, including the Po Valley, was known for its fertility and beauty. Unfortunately, nothing remains of the original city, and only bits of the grand construction of the third and fourth centuries survived the ravages of the fifth and the building programs of the Middle Ages. Max-imian put great effort into improving the state of his capital. Extended city defenses included new walls surrounding the palace, baths, theaters, a circus, and the allimportant mint. Of these only part of the wall is still standing, with the Torre di Ansperto, an old tower.
Mediterranean Sea Called by the Romans the Mare Internum, this was the most important body of water in the Roman Empire. Over its waters sailed the bulk of the vessels from many nations, and the economic lifelines of entire provinces were dependent upon the merchant ships that moved from port to port. Initially, the Romans were not great seafarers in the tradition of their Etruscan predecessors. Because of the Punic Wars, however, the mighty fleets of Rome were created. Subsequently the Mediterranean became a Roman lake. The military supremacy of their ships was not questioned on a grand scale until the time of Geiseric and the Vandals in the middle of the fifth century C. E., when the Vandal war vessels terrorized Africa, Spain, and Italy.
For details on the many facets of Mediterranean life, see also achaea; Adriatic sea; Africa; Alexandria; aquileia; Asia; black sea; brundisium; caesarea; Carthage; Constantinople; Corsica; crete and cyre-naica; Cyprus; egypt; gallia; geiseric; hispania; indus try; ionia; italia; liburnia; massilia; narbo; navy; piracy; pompey, sextus; red sea; Rhodes; Sardinia; ships; sicilia; trade; and vandals.
Megalesia Also known as Megalensia; a unique festival in honor of the goddess cybele, held annually from April 4 to 10. The Festival of the Great Mother began in 205-204 B. C.E., when Cybele was invited by the Senate to come to Rome from her center at pessinus in phrygia. Cybele’s arrival in the Eternal City, at a moment of crisis during the punic Wars, was marked by a grand celebration, the first holding of the Megalesia, then lasting only one day, on April 4. Although Cybele received a temple on the palatine Hill and the addition of several days to the Megalesia in 191 B. C.E., the strangeness of her cult horrified traditional Roman sensibilities. Not only were her priests eunuchs, but also some participants in the festival very often castrated themselves in fits of ecstasy. The senate forbade all Romans from physically participating in the Megalesia. The activities of the phrygian clerics were tolerated and, probably to increase the public enjoyment, the tradition began of staging Roman comedies. in the first century C. E., other changes were made, mainly through the influence of Claudius. The figure of Attis, Cybele’s lover, was magnified, and a spring cycle was initiated to add him to the Megalesia. The dates of the Attis festival were March 15-27, while the elaborate rituals of the feast were unchanged. This left the Megalesia still an important religious holiday but tempered its bizarre nature by including it in a broader context.
Meherdates (fl. first century c. e.) Claimant to the throne of Parthia (c. 47-49 c. e.)
The son of the parthian King phraates, Meherdates had been sent as a child-hostage to the Romans. Raised in Rome, he was still there in 47, when Gotarzes II was embroiled in a bitter struggle with Vardanes for political supremacy. During the trouble the name of Meherdates was mentioned as a possible candidate for the throne but was forgotten when Gotarzes proved triumphant. Two years later, a group of parthian emissaries arrived in Rome to beg Claudius to send Meherdates to parthia. They were confident that he could overthrow the tyrannical Gotarzes and rule as a reliable ally to the Roman Empire. Claudius agreed, ordering Gaius Cassius, governor of syria, to accompany Meherdates to the Euphrates. There the prince was met by a sizable collection of parthian nobles.
The host should have set out, but delays took place. Meherdates proved fond of drink and banquets. After finally setting forth, the would-be usurper was unable to hold his wavering supporters, who deserted him in large numbers. With the odds more to his liking, Gotarzes attacked, won a victory and had Meherdates brought before him in chains. His ears were cut off before he was displayed to the parthian crowds as a client of Rome.
Mela, Annaeus (fl. mid-first century c. e.) Father of the poet Lucan and brother to Junius Gallio and Seneca Mela was a member of the Equestrians (equites) who devoted himself almost exclusively to a career in the imperial government. He held various procuratorships, attaining finally the rank of senator, but wielding greater influence through his son. The wealth of Mela was reportedly considerable, increasing after the suicide of Lucan in 65 C. E., when the father assumed the poet’s estate. This acquisition attracted the attention of Nero, who, coveting such riches, listened to false charges against Mela concerning his complicity in the pisonian
CONSPIRACY. Mela killed himself, bequeathing his fortune to the Praetorian prefect Ofonius tigellinus and his son-in-law, Cassutianus Capito. His wife Acilia was shamefully named by Lucan as an accomplice in the Piso affair.
Mela, Pomponius (fl. first century c. e.) Geographer during the reign of Gaius Caligula (37-41 c. e.), or perhaps of Claudius (41-54 c. e.)
Pomponius Mela came from Tingentera, a town near Gibraltar in Hispania Baetica. Based upon a reading of his work, he received training in rhetoric and was influenced by the literary style of Seneca. Mela authored a three-volume treatise on geography, De situ orbis, or “On the world’s locations.” In it he examined the geography of the known world, listing some 1,500 places while providing details about the customs and characteristics of each spot. He used as his resources a variety of writers, especially Cornelius Nepos. pliny the elder, in turn, used Mela in his Natural History.
Melania the Elder (c. 345-410 c. e.) Roman noblewoman and convert to Christianity
A symbol (with Melania the Younger) of the eventual success and pervasive nature of Christianity among the Roman upper classes, St. Melania departed from her high place in society to follow the example of St. Jerome in adopting the ascetic life. She left her estates in 372 for the East, establishing a monastery near Jerusalem on the Mount of Olives before returning briefly to Rome in 397. The attack of the Goths on Italy in the early fifth century forced her to flee to Africa and then to Jerusalem, where she died. St. Melania had a profound influence upon her granddaughter, St. melania the younger.
Melania the Younger (c. 383-438 c. e.) Granddaughter of Melania the Elder
Another convert to Christian asceticism from the ranks of the Roman nobility, Melania the Younger followed the path of her grandmother by renouncing the world and her vast wealth, embracing the life of an ascetic with her husband Pinianus. She left Italy, which was overrun by the Goths of Alaric at the time, traveling to Tagaste, Africa. Accompanied by her faithful husband, she joined a monastery at Bethlehem before moving to Jerusalem. There Melania founded a monastery, as had her older namesake, on the Mount of Olives. Pinianus died in 431, seven years before Melania.
Melitius and the Melitians (fl. early fourth century C. E.) Bishop of Lycopolis in Egypt
Melitius founded and lent his name to a religious movement that was declared schismatic by the fouith - cen tury C. E. Christian Church. The schism originated as a result of the great persecution of Emperor Diocletian (c. 303-313) throughout the Roman Empire. Many Christians, on pain of tort u re and death, had given up the faith but later wished to repent. The conditions for their acceptance once more into the church were found by Melitius to be far too lenient. He voiced his complaints and, finding no s a tis fac to ry response from his superiors, ordained his own priests. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (home of Arius [260-336 C. E.] the later heresiarch), excommunicated Melitius only to find that the Egyptian prelate had many supporters. Peter was later executed by the imperial government, and Melitius was sent to work in the mines, a harsh period for him that added to his claims. Intere s t-ingly, the Council of Nicaea did not declare the Melitians to be heretics, working instead to integrate them back into the church. Devout followers of Melitius continued to worship separately for centuries and were wiped out finally in Egypt in the eight century, by Islam.
Melitius of Antioch (d. 381 c. e.) Bishop of Antioch Melitius was a source of controversy in the mid-fourth century with regard to the see of Antioch. Formerly the bishop of Sebaste (modern Sivas), Melitius was translated from his see to that of Antioch around 360, at the time when the diocese was still in the throes of considerable theological upheaval resulting from the heresy of Arian-ism. As Melitius had made promises to both parties in the city before his election, he was soon facing trouble. Of a mild, peaceful, and religious disposition, he was forced to decide his theological loyalties before Emperor Constan-tius II, who, upon hearing Melitius’s orthodoxy, exiled him. There followed a bitter division within the city and, upon Melitius’s return under Emperor Julian (362), his claim to the see was disputed, particularly as an opposing claimant, Paulinus, had entered the picture. Banished several more times and censured over questionable theological views, Melitius was finally restored in 378. He died fully reconciled with the church in 381 while presiding over the Council of Constantinople. The followers of Melitius came to be called Melitians and these efforts were denoted the Melitian Schism, not to be confused with the Melitian Schism in Egypt in the early fourth century The pro-Melitian bishop Flavian was recognized as bishop of Antioch in 398 by Pope St. Siricius.
Menas (Menodorus) (d. 35 b. c.e.) Freedman and a very unreliable admiral in the service of the pirate Sextus Pompey (38-37 b. c.e.).
Menas was a trusted servant of Sextus who received command of Sardinia in 38, during the long struggle between Sextus and the combined forces (naval and legionary) of Octavian (Augustus). Sextus Pompey, however, could never hold the loyalty of his officers, and Menas deserted his cause, transferring his allegiance to Octavian, along with all of Sardinia and three legions. Octavian welcomed him, appointing him to a major command in his fleet. He was to be subordinate to Admiral Calvisius Sabinus in the upcoming campaign against Sextus in Sicily. Menas thus shared the defeat inflicted upon Octavian’s ships and the resulting disaster that destroyed half of the fleet. Although Octavian’s repaired flotilla was impressive, Menas chafed at holding a secondary rank to Sabinus and went back to Sextus in 36. By July, facing accusations from his fellow commanders, and unable to bear the suspicions of his chief, Menas again deserted. It was a timely betrayal, because on September 3, Marcus agrippa crushed the Sextian fleet at naulochus. Octavian could no longer trust Menas, and he was given minor positions until he was killed in a battle with the pannonians.
Mercury God of travel and merchants, a unique Roman divinity who was identified with the Greek god Hermes and later received all of that deity’s characteristics. Mercurius, or Mercury, was a late arrival to Rome’s pantheon, receiving his own temple near the Circus Maximus in 495 B. C.E. and an altar next to the Porta Capena. As was true with most of the other Roman gods, Mercury had several incarnations. Merchants adopted him as their patron, offering him sacrifices to ensure safe journeys and bountiful commerce. This facet of his nature may have come about as a result of his also being known as the winged messenger of Jupiter. Although he had no festival date on the “calendar of Numa,” his special day was May 25, when the merchants visited his altar.
See also gods and goddesses of rome.
Merida (Emerita) Capital of hispania Lusitania and the principal center of Roman influence in the province. It was situated in eastern Lusitania (southwestern Spain) on the Anas (modern Guadiana) River to allow its governor to summon aid from his associates in Hispania Baet-ica and Hispania Taraconensis in the event of trouble from the unpredictable Lusitanian tribes. Equally, its location allowed the city to participate fully in the extensive economic life of Spain, while ensuring the line of communications for the Roman government throughout the entire region. Merida was founded sometime around 25 B. C.E. by the order of Augustus. As part of his imperial colonization effort, veterans were given land to establish themselves as a colony, and they were totally successful. Merida acquired a reputation as an Italian stronghold, blessed with every Roman architectural wonder and amusement. There were aqueducts, temples, an amphitheater, a circus and the traditional monuments to Rome’s greatness, in particular an arch to Trajan.
Merobaudes, Flavius (1) (d. 387 c. e.) Magister pedi-tum, three-time consul (377, 383, 388), powerful figure in the Roman Empire during the later years of the fourth century C. E.
Merobaudes was a German, probably a Frank by descent, who served in the imperial armies and attained command as an officer in the reign of Julian (361-363 C. E.). In 363 he was part of the entourage escorting the dead emperor to Tarsus for burial. Merobaudes received an appointment from Valentinian I in 375 to the office of magister peditum in the West. He directed the emperor’s last campaign in Pannonia. When Valentinian died that year, the magister ensured that Valentinian’s son, Valentinian II, was elevated to the rank of Augustus, while dominating the other heir, gratian. The next years saw Merobaudes as the master of the West. He held consulships in 377 and 383, worked against the influence of the MAGISTER MILI-TUM RICIMER, and was the key political entity at court, ever eager to increase his sway and authority A major opportunity presented itself in 383 when the usurper Magnus Maximus, the general of the armies in Britain, crossed the Channel and proclaimed himself emperor. Merobaudes threw his support behind Maximus, retaining in all probability the post of magister peditum following Gratian’s death in August 383. For the next five years he continued to exercise his will upon the Western provinces and was named to a highly irregular third consulship in 388. Because of the collapse of relations between Maximus and the emperor of the East, Theodosius, Merobaudes committed suicide late in 387, before he could assume his consul duties. The exact reason for this remains unclear, although Maximus took his place as consul.
Merobaudes, Flavius (2) (d. after 446 c. e.) Christian poet
Merobaudes probably came from a German (Frankish) family but lived in Spain, studying rhetoric and serving as an army commander (c. 443). He had achieved fame in Rome, where he worked at the court of Emperor Valentinian III, writing panegyrics to his parton, the imperial family and the powerful general aetius. For his poems Merobaudes was given a statue in the Forum of Trajan. He followed Claudian in general style, but lacked his polish and ease with words. Mainly fragments of his works have survived, composed in a popular fashion while displaying an obvious Christian perspective.
Mesopotamia The large and ancient region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Surrounded on all sides by important territories (Armenia, Syria, Arabia, and Assyria), Mesopotamia served as a battleground between Romans and parthians or Romans and persians. It was also an important route for trade and commerce. The name was derived from the Greek, and came to stand for several divisions of the area. Mesopotamia could include merely its Syrian parts or its Assyrian, or both. During the old persian Empire it was under the satrapy of Babylonia and later received extensive colonization from the Seleucids. under the parthians, however, a new strategic importance was given to it, as it became a wall against
Rome, at such key sites as carrhae, hatra, and nisibis. Throughout the long, bitter wars with the Romans, Mesopotamia suffered numerous invasions, counterattacks, and sieges. For Roman generals often chose to assault Babylonia by taking a line of advance along the rivers, and thus wreaked repeated devastation with marches through the invariably contested districts.
In the final years of trajan (114-117 c. e.), Mesopotamia was subjugated by the legions and transformed into an imperial domain, the province of Mesopotamia. HADRIAN, retreating back to the Syrian border, later abandoned the conquests. Lucius Verus (162-165) regained Mesopotamia, and the Romans would not leave until the late third century. Upper Mesopotamia became, by order of Septimius Severus, the imperial province of Mesopotamia and was defended by veteran colonies at car-rhae, Singara, and Edessa, as well as fortresses at strategic locations. The dynastically exhausted Parthians could not mount effective countermeasures but were crushed in turn by the new power in the East, the Sassanids, who resurrected the Persian Empire beginning in 226 c. e. There followed a thunderous series of campaigns to solidify their hold over all of the old Parthian lands. In 230, Mesopotamia was attacked. By 237-238 it had fallen, and years of fighting culminated in 260 with defeat and the eventual death of Valerian at the hands of Shapur I.
Through the efforts of subsequent emperors, a Roman recovery of the East was undertaken, and in 238 Carus reclaimed Mesopotamia. Emperor galerius, in 296, inflicted another crushing defeat on the Persians. So devastating was the loss to Persia that only in the time of Constantius was trouble renewed. The emperor JULIAN, in 363, took to the field once more to defend Mesopotamia but died from wounds received in battle. His successor, Jovian, accepted a humiliating peace, and the Persians triumphantly assumed mastery over the land between the rivers.
Messalla Corvinus, Marcus Valerius (64 b. c.e.-8 c. e.) Influential figure in the reign of Emperor Augustus Respected and well liked, he was a great patron of the arts. Messalla was a member of the old patrician nobility, studying Greek subjects in his youth, while mastering oratory Subsequently he became one of Rome’s leading orators, earning favorable comparison with Asinius Pol-lio. As a writer he examined grammar, composed bucolic poems in the style of Virgil and may have authored an autobiography later used by historians such as Appian, Plutarch, and Suetonius.
Messalla entered politics on the side of the libera tors, joining Brutus and Cassius and fighting the battle of Philippi in 42 b. c.e. As his reputation was already considerable, he was offered command of the surviving legions of the Republic but declined. The party of Marc ANTONY seemed to him to be the brightest, and so he entered into Antony’s circle, aiding the eventual triumvir on several occasions. Antony, however, was too unpredictable for Messalla and was utterly dominated by Cleopatra, Egypt’s queen. Messalla thus joined Octavian (Augustus) sometime before 36 b. c.e., campaigning for him over the next years. He fought the pirate Sextus Pompey in 36 and saw duty in Illyricum, Pannonia in 35-34 and overcame the Alpine tribe of the Salassi in 34-33. Octavian rewarded him with the consulship in 31, the same year in which Messalla joined him in the battle of Actium, where Antony was destroyed.
With an empire to organize, Augustus sent Messalla to the East, then named him proconsul of Gaul. There, on his birthday in 27, he subdued the Aquitani. Henceforth he held various government positions. In 25 b. c.e., Augustus named him the urban prefect of Rome, only to have him resign after six days in protest against the status of the office in regard to the Eternal city, or perhaps because Messalla did not feel up to the task. Later, in 11, he was on the water board of the city, as a curator aquarum. Finally, in 2 b. c.e., he made the recommendation that Augustus hold the title of pater patriae. Aside from his political activities, Messalla spent most of his time engaged in social and artistic endeavors. Tibullus, Ovid, Sulpicia, and others enjoyed Messalla’s favor. They, in turn, wrote of him in their panegyrics elegiacs. He also devoted vast sums to public works and buildings, most notably the reconstruction of sections of the Via Latina.
Messalla Messallinus, Marcus Valerius (fl. early first century c. e.) Son of Messalla Corvinus, who achieved some fame during the reigns of Augustus {27 B. C.E.-14 c. e.) and Tiberius (14-37 c. e.)
Messalla held a consulship in 3 b. c.e. and was known as a fairly proficient orator in his own right. In 6 c. e. he was legate of illyricum, assigned to aid Tiberius in his campaign against the Marcommanic king maroboduus. When all of the Dalmatian and Pannonian tribes erupted in the rear of the advancing Roman legions, Messalla was sent back to Pannonia to deal with them. His skills as a general were put to the test. A battle was won and Siscia captured, for which he received a tribute in Rome. As a member of the Senate, Messalla played a role in the early days of Tiberius’s rule. His speeches, in part, were preserved. Later he was elected one of the quindecimviri, with care over the sibylline books.
Messallina, Statilia (fl. first century c. e.) Empress from 66-68 c. e. and the last wife of Emperor Nero Statilia was reportedly a stunning beauty, born to a noble family and descended from Taurus, the triumphant general and two-time consul. This combination of wealth and good looks attracted many suitors. She was married five times in all and had many lovers. In 65, one of her latest affairs was with Nero; therefore, it was considered political suicide for another to interfere in the alliance. M. Vestinus Atticus, consul in 65, made such a blunder by becoming her fourth husband. Jealous, Nero put him to death, wedding the lady in 66. Statilia’s associations with the most influential Romans protected her when Nero fell from power. In 69, during Otho’s brief reign, he planned to marry her, but he lost the throne before he could do so. Statilia overcame this tragedy as well.
Messallina, Valeria (d. 48 c. e.) Empress from 41-48, the third wife of Emperor Claudius
Valeria Messallina was one of the most infamous women of Rome because of her abuses of power and her debaucheries. She came from a noble family, her mother being Domitia Lepida, the daughter of antonia (2). Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus was her uncle, and thus she was related to Nero as well. Claudius, notoriously bad in his choice of women, married her in 41. From the start she exercised a wholly unhealthy control over him, equal to the powers of the imperial freedmen, who dominated palace life during this period. She bore Claudius two children, Britannicus and Octavia, but her principal efforts were dedicated to crushing her opponents and acquiring new lovers. She told most of her lovers that Claudius knew about her affairs, approving of them. Often Claudius would instruct courtiers to do whatever she commanded, so they thought that he condoned her activities. It became clear by 48, however, that the emperor was just about the only person in Rome who did not know of Messallina’s encounters and endless indiscretions. A general fear of her, and a worry that the popular actor Mnester might be killed for sleeping with her, kept most of the court silent.
Finally, in 48, Messallina developed such a passion for Gaius Silius that she married him in a mock wedding ceremony The freedman Narcissus was now able to move against the empress. Using the many members of Claudius’s circle, he secured her condemnation at the order of a shaken and terrified emperor. Amazed that her offenses had actually been discovered, Messallina fled to the gardens of Lucullus and there met her death at the hands of a tribune of the Praetorian Guard. She epitomized the political weakness of Claudius’s reign and the general decline of Roman morality. Interestingly, Claudius ordered that all mention of her name was to be obliterated from documents, monuments, and inscriptions and vowed never to marry again, though he did during the next year, this time to Agrippina the Younger.
Metellus Celer, Quintus Caecilius Consul in 60 b. c.e. Metellus Celer was a minor player in the drama of the Republic during the years prior to the formation of the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. He opposed both the political aspirations of CLODIUS PULCHER and the proposed land reforms of Julius CAESAR. Metellus was appointed governor of
Gallia Transalpina at the same time that the Lex Vatinia was passed, giving Caesar command of Illyricum and Gallia Cisalpina (c. 59 b. c.e.). But Metellus suddenly dropped dead, allowing Pompey to press the Senate to approve Caesar’s command over Transalpine Gaul as well. Caesar was thus able to embark upon his famous gallic WARS. For a number of years before his death, Metellus was unhappily married to the infamous Clodia, the sister of Clodius Pulcher, a cousin. The charge was made by Cicero, and often repeated, that Clodia poisoned her husband, having tired of him. He was also counted among the better orators of his time by the historian Tacitus, who wrote that he was one of several successful political figures who achieved greatness through strength of arms and keenness of rhetorical wit.
Metellus Scipio, Quintus Caecilius (d. 46 b. c.e.) Consul in 52 b. c.e. and a supporter of Pompey the Great during the Civil War with Julius Caesar (49-45 b. c.e.).
A member of an ancient family, Scipio was a firm adherent of the aristocracy of the Republic and thus found Pompey a useful counterbalance to Caesar. A political alliance was cemented by the marriage of his daughter CORNELIA (2) to Pompey following the death of JULIA (2) in 54. A grateful Pompey then elevated Scipio to the consulship as his colleague, this despite his inability to become consul on his own. With the eruption of hostilities in the Republic in 49, Scipio joined Pompey and was assigned a proconsular command in the East. In 48 he tried to help Pompey at dyrrhachium and the battle of PHARSALUS but could do little. Following the disaster of Pharsalus, he fled to Africa with the Pompeian remnant. There he was one of the leading generals with cato uti-CENSIS, LABIENUS, and King JUBA of Numidia. Caesar arrived and won the battle of thapsus in February 46 B. C.E. Scipio killed himself immediately afterward.
Milan See mediolanum.
Milan, Edict of Declaration issued circa 313 c. e. by Emperors Constantine the Great and licinius, ending the persecution of Christianity. It marked the ascendancy of the Christian Church as the dominant religious force in the Roman Empire. Following the battle of Mil-vian Bridge and the defeat of maxentius in 312, Constantine was able to pass legislation that went beyond the Edict of Toleration decreed by Emperor galerius in 311. Christians in the provinces under his control were not only granted full rights of worship, they also received certain other benefits. He returned all confiscated monies to them and even opened the coffers of the treasury to the church to meet its financial needs.
M o reo ve r, because of his position as senior empero r in the now disorganized tetrarchy, Constantine could use his political and military superiority on his supposed c o rulers, Licinius and the usurper maximinus daia. Licinius agreed immediately to respect Christianity and, searching for an ally against Maximinus in the East, met with Constantine at Mediolanum (Milan) early in 313. There both emperors reached an accord by which Licinius would extend his own toleration to match that of Constantine. The result was the so-called Edict of Milan, which was neither made public there, nor was a real edict.
Maximinus Daia, meanwhile, could not chance a bitter war with Constantine. He thus ceased all persecution of the Christians. The plans to revive organized Paganism also failed with the fall of Maxentius. The inevitable war with Licinius for mastery of the Eastern provinces began in 313 and on May 1, Licinius proved victorious over M aximinus’s larger host. Maximinus retreated to Nicome-dia, declaring all Christians in his domain to be free, while re t u rning to them all seized pro p e rty. He died in August.
True to his promise, at Nicomedia in June 313, Licinius published the letter that had been formulated in Milan. It was recorded joyously by the Christian writers Eusebius and Lactantius. Part of it read:
When I, Constantine Augustus, and I, Licinius Augustus, had made a meeting at Mediolanum and had discussed all matters which pertained to the public good and the safety of the government, amongst all other things that would bring benefit to the majority of men we believed that arrangements were necessary to secure the continued reverence for the Divinity and so toward that end we grant both to Christians and to all men the right to follow freely whatever religion each wished, to insure that thereby any divinity in heaven’s seat may be appeased and made propitious towards us and to any who are placed beneath our power.
Milestones Roman milestones gave the distance from a named location to where the milestone stood. In Italy, that location was normally Rome, while in the provinces it was from the provincial capital. Milestones were erected every Roman mile, meaning that they were found every 1,000 paces (millia passuum). However, the distances posted on the milestone were expressed in leagues (leugae), which equaled 1,500 passus, or 1.5 miles.
Milestones in the Republic bore the name of the consul or officials who were responsible for their constru c-tion. In the imperial era, milestones were inscribed with the full name and title of the emperor. They were normally cylindrical or oval in shape, resting on a square base and varying in height from 6 feet 6 inches to 13 feet. The engraving was made directly into the stone face, although some were clearly painted. The abundance and value of milestones to the Romans is evidenced by the fact that m ore than 4,000 survive, with 600 found in Italy alone. They are of great value to historians in that they served to delimit specific territorial units within the empire, especially within the specific boundaries of the pro vin c e s.
Miletus Ancient city near the Aegean Sea coast of ASIA MINOR, situated specifically in Ionian Caria. Miletus early on achieved maritime greatness and expanded colonially along the Black Sea. Its period of unrestricted prosperity ended in 495-4 b. c.e. when the metropolis was destroyed by the Persians. Rebuilt (c. 479 b. c.e.) by its inhabitants, Miletus chose to oppose the advances of Alexander the Great, only to be crushed again. Once more the Miletians resurrected their homes, this time following original plans. By the time the Romans gained control of Asia (130 b. c.e.), Miletus had fully recovered its architectural splendor but not its economic or seagoing might. Nevertheless, the city received heavy assistance from the Roman government, aimed at improving the financial and commercial life of Asia. Miletian artisans and craftsmen benefited reputedly, while the main export of Miletus, wool, found a market in every corner of the ancient world. The sheep of Miletus, for centuries the finest in Asia Minor, produced superb wools, the milesia vellera, and were eventually bred in Italy.
In 479 b. c.e., the architect-planner, Hippodamus, a native of the city, had designed Miletus along a grid system. Through the help of the Romans, a more unified artistic theme was developed, with gates to section off parts of the city overlooking the harbor. Thus concealed, and hence more startling upon entrance, were the city’s main attractions, a harbor stoa and a larger south stoa reached along a beautifully colonnaded avenue. There was as well the panorama of agora, gymnasium, and temples. The stunning Temple of Apollo was designed to match the other Asian cities and their divinities (Ephesus had Diana, Pergamum had Augustus, Smyrna worshiped Tiberius). Unfortunately for the Milesians, Gaius Caligula heard of the city’s plans and in 40 ordered that the new temple be devoted to him. Miletus possessed four harbors, with a group of small islands, and was positioned across the mouth of the Maeander River. But wool and such eccentric natural characteristics were not enough to elevate Miletus into a first-city status in Asia.
Milichus (d. after 65 c. e.) Freedman to the Senator Flavius Scaevinus
Milichus was one of the first to inform Emperor nero of the Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 c. e. Tacitus wrote that it was unclear as to how much Milichus knew of the plot to overthrow Nero, but when Scaevinus told him to sharpen the family dagger and to prepare bandages, he knew that a great event was at hand. The next morning, at dawn, Milichus went to the Servilian Gardens and eventually met the emperor, telling him of the intended attack. This betrayal, aided by the arrests already made of the conspirators, was followed by a period of slaughter. From his betrayal of the plot, Milichus reaped considerable wealth.
Milo, Titus Annius (d. c. 47 b. c.e.) Military tribune of Samnite origin, and plotter
In 58 B. C.E., the first triumvirate succeeded in ousting its enemy Cicero from Rome, and Pompey felt an increasing apprehension as Julius Caesar installed P Clodius as his loyal agent, chief bully, and executor of policy. Clodius terrorized the city and caused all opposition to cower—ostensibly on behalf of Caesar.
In 57 B. C.E., Pompey leveled his counterattack. He enlisted the service of the violent Annius to organize a defense against Clodius. Annius performed admirably, and street violence broke out even in the Forum, where bodies piled up everywhere. Meanwhile, Annius and Clodius became dire enemies. Clodius burned down Annius’s house in October of that year, and the two sued each other for disturbing the peace, a farce that continued for an entire year.
Fi nail), on January 18, 52 B. C.E., Clodius was killed on the order of Annius. Due to public outcry, Annius was put on trial by Pompey. The trial was as fair as the triumvirate could make it. Despite a magnificent oration by Cicero, Annius was found guilty and exiled to a comfortable life in Massilia. After Pompey’s death in 48 B. C.E., Annius re t u rned to southern Italy and began to make tro u-ble again, enlisting the aid of Caelius, a disgruntled servant of Caesar. Times had changed, and both were killed.
Milvian Bridge The site of a famous (even legendary) confrontation between the armies of Constantine the Great and maxentius, in the last days of October 312 c. e. The battle of Milvian Bridge not only established the political supremacy of Constantine in the West but also ensured the survival and prosperity of Christianity. For these reasons the battle assumed the status of a struggle between the forces of light (Christianity) and darkness (paganism) .
At the start of 312, relations between the two rival emperors in the West had deteriorated considerably. It was clear that a collision was inevitable, and Constantine, having pre p a red his arm y, launched an assault across the Alps to dethrone the man he deemed a tyrant. He had with him the flower of his soldiery, some 40,000 well-trained veterans. Maxentius supposedly counted around 100,000 men for the defense of Italy, although most remained near Rome and the only truly reliable units under his command were the cohorts of the praeto rian guard.
Constantine’s advance went smoothly over the Mt. Genevre Pass, followed by the storming of susa, which made a march into northern Italy possible. Maxentius committed a severe blunder by allowing the Alpine passes to fall and had to watch in frustration as his enemy gained followers in each city through a total absence of plundering, and fair treatment for all citizens.
The general of Maxentius, Ruricius Pompeianus, finally engaged Constantine near Turin. Pompeianus used his heavy cavalry to good effect initially, riding through Constantine’s center. Having pierced the front lines, however, the horsemen were quickly clubbed off their mounts. Turin was soon surrendered to Constantine’s siege, and verona was targeted next. Pompeianus brought up reinforcements to break the siege but fell on the field before the city surrendered.
After Modena opened its gates, Constantine found the via Flaminia totally free, allowing an unmolested line to the gates of Rome. He did not want to lay siege to the Eternal City and was relieved when Maxentius, listening to the oracular sibylline books, opted for a military encounter. The first meeting between the forces, at saxa Rubra, or Red Rock, resulted in a setback for Constantine. It would appear, however, that the once-mighty host of Maxentius was so depleted by the engagement as to remove any hope of exploiting success. For this reason Constantine was able to remain in pursuit to the Tiber and the Milvian Bridge.
Following the Sibylline Books, Maxentius was confident that his foe would be destroyed. Amassing all available troops, he sent them out of Rome, over the Tiber, crossing that river on a bridge of boats erected on the water. His army was by then composed of Praetorian Guards, joined by the Urban Cohorts of Rome, auxiliaries and light cavalry from Numidia and the Moorish lands. He apparently did not enjoy a numerical superiority at this stage, when Constantine discovered that Maxentius’s troops were recklessly positioned with their backs to the river.
In late October, perhaps the 28th, the Praetorian Guard dressed for the last time. On the opposite side, Roman legions went into battle for the first time with the Chi-rho (P) emblazoned upon their shields. True to his dream, Constantine had ordered this symbol of Christ painted upon the shields of his men, hoping that with the sign, he might conquer.
Constantine led his cavalry on the flanks, placing the infantry in the middle. Maxentius, who did not arrive until the opening moments, saw that his dispositions were the same. The cavalry of Constantine burst forward under his leadership, the Gallic riders crushing the lighter Numidians on the right, while their comrades disposed of the enemy on the left. With their flanks exposed, the auxiliaries ran for their lives, joined by the demoralized members of Maxentius’s army, save for the Praetorian Guard. The Guardsmen refused to surrender, fighting to the death well into the night. As for the others, they tried to cross the bridges, only to have the boats collapse beneath their weight. Maxentius was among those falling into the water. unable to remove his armor, he drowned, and his body was not brought out of the river until the next day. victory for Constantine was total, and he entered Rome as master of the Western world.
Minerva Known to the Greeks as Athena, an important Roman divinity, ranking behind jupiter and jUNO. According to legend, Minerva was born fully formed and arm e d, coming out of Jupiter’s head as an emanation of his intellect. The Romans thus honored her as a goddess of reason.
Wisdom, the arts and intelligence. She received a special chapel in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capito-line Hill, sharing the great edifice with Jupiter and Juno. As her appearance indicated, with her bright helmet, shield, arm o r, and spear, Minerva was the patroness of soldiers in battle, watching over men’s courage, skill, and fortitude. Captured goods or tre a s u res from the enemy were often sacrificed in her temple on the Capitol, or at her altar at the base of the Caelian Hill. The Festival of Quin-q u a t rts, or Quinquatria, was at first wholly unrelated to M i n e rva, but became attached to her cult over the years.
See also festivals; gods and goddesses of rome;
RELIGION.
Minimi Coins issued by barbarian nations from the third to the sixth centuries C. E., crude, worthless imitations of the Roman imperial currency Normally, the minimi were of bronze, decorated with unsophisticated diagrams and incredibly small in size, hence the derivation from the Latin minimus, or smallest.
See also coinage.
Misenum A small promontory jutting into the Tyrrhenian Sea from the coast of Campania in Italy on the Bay of Naples. Misenum was situated in the region of Cumae, BAULI, BAIAE, and PUTEOLI. Its name was derived supposedly from Misenus, the trumpeter of Aeneas, who drowned in the waters of its bay For many years the Campanians were threatened by pirate sorties out of the Tyrrhenian Sea. These attacks were a leading reason for Pompey’s brilliant campaign of 67 b. c.e. against the pirates in the Mediterranean. Misenum’s strategic value was clear, and when Augustus reorganized the armed forces of Rome, he chose the spot and its bay to build an excellent harbor. Misenum emerged, with Ravenna, as one of the major ports for the Roman Imperial navy in Italy
Command of the fleet at Misenum was considered a very important step upward in a Roman career. often marines and sailors could be transferred from Misenum to Rome for special imperial duties or as rigging operators at the Colosseum.
As was true with much of Campania, the community that developed around the bay was a favorite retreat for the most powerful people in Rome. Marius owned a villa there, which passed into the hands of Tiberius. There, in 37 C. E., Gaius Caligula looked on as the aged emperor either died of natural causes or was murdered.
Misenum, Conference of Meeting held in 39 b. c.e. between the Triumvirs Marc ANTONY and Octavian (AUGUSTUS) on one side, and Sextus pompey, the pirate son of Pompey the Great. Sextus had proven a surprisingly successful pirate chief, whose ships commanded much of the Mediterranean, threatening all of the Italian coast as well as the provinces, and wielding the power to cut off vital shipments of grain from Africa to Rome. Following the treaty of brundisium in 40 b. c.e., both Antony and octavian had recognized the need to deal with Sextus Pompey They were, however, not in a position to hound him from the seas and consequently agreed to a discussion. The first encounter at Puteoli ended in nothing, but in the spring of 39, real progress in negotiations led to the Treaty of Misenum. By the terms of this agreement, Sextus promised to leave the corn supply unmolested, to respect the integrity of Italy, return all seized property and to engage in no hostile actions. In return, he received Corsica, Sardinia, Achaea, and Sicily, along with vast sums of money as recompense, and a position in the triumvirate. He was also promised eventual augurship and consulship. His status was thus strengthened militarily and politically, although both of his opponents knew that the treaty would not remain intact.
Mithras One of the major cult figures in the Roman Empire, popular in large circles of society from the first century C. E. until the fourth century. Mithras was an ancient deity, first established by the Aryans and then included in the vedas as a god of light. In this incarnation he traveled to Persia, where the Zoroastrians attached him to their pantheon. As a light bringer, Mithras suited perfectly Zoroaster’s belief in the duality of light and dark. He became a soldier in the service of Ahura-Mazda, fighting against the darkness of Ahriman. Though subordinated to Ahura-Mazda, Mithras retained such an individuality that he emerged as a unique god with his own cult and special myths. According to his mythology, Mithras came from a rock, born miraculously and then forced to endure two great tasks: a match of wrestling with the sun (they thus became friends) and the capture of the sacred bull of creation. The sacrifice of this animal brought about the blossoming of flowers, plants, and crops.
As the Mithraic cult moved west, it assumed an in creasing attachment to sun worship and mystical as trol ogy. Sun connections were obvious, given the long-t e rm relationship with Ahura-Mazda, and the astro l o gy was the result of conversions made in Babylonia and Chaldaea. The god probably entered the Roman world sometime in the middle of the first century b. c.e. , takin g hold first in the eastern provinces. Plutarch mentions Mithraism in connection with Cilician pirates in his Life of Pompey. The cult moved west through the ports of call and in the ranks of the Roman legions. Sailors, m erchants, and even pirates brought Mithraism to the docks of Rome, finding support among foreigners and then among the various Roman social groups. Soldiers stationed in Syria became devotees, and the god’s rituals found adherents throughout the legions in the empire. Mithras off e red soldiers a sense of secret elitism, bro t h e r-
Hood achieved only after a rigorous period of study and occult initiations. Underground chapels filled with incense only added to the mystical nature of their experiences, ensuring both their faith and desire to bring others into the fold. In time, even the jaded members of the Praetorian Guard were counted among the Mithraic ranks.
For most of the first century C. E., the Romans expressed little interest in yet another Eastern cult. But when Vespasian became emperor, the Flavians found themselves presiding over many places suddenly captivated by Mithras. The East was most receptive, while in the West even as far as London he continued to be popular in legionary camps and towns and in commercial centers. Commodus may have been a member of the Mithras cult, although he was charged with having desecrated their services by murdering someone. Nothing was proven because one of the characteristics of the Mithraic ceremony was a kind of mock homicide.
By far the most useful association developed by the cult was that of the invincible sun god, SOL INVICTUS. Already Mithras was known as a god of light, so his identification with Sol was natural and nurtured the popular solar worship in the third and fourth centuries. The coinage of the emperors, most notably Valerian (c. 253-259 C. E.) displayed the Sun prominently, and later minting placed Mithras in the same position. Inscriptions called the god the Sol Invictus comes, the Unconquered companion of the Sun, or Sol Invictus Mithras, Unconquered Sun.
With acceptance by the imperial cult of state, Mith-raism grew in wealth, although not necessarily in numbers. its very nature prevented it from achieving the kind of widespread belief being enjoyed by its closest rival, Christianity. With its ceremonies held in secre t grottoes, Mithraism conveyed a sense of subtle mystery that appealed to the legions and the religious innovators but was wholly lost on the social mainstream of the empire.
Nevertheless, Diocletian found it expedient to cite Mithras as one of the leading representatives of the return to grand Paganism in the Roman Empire. Just as the other pagan gods could not overcome Christianity so did Mithras, the Sun, fail before the coming of the Son. The extent of the influence of the Mithraic cult on formative Christian doctrine has long been debated, but by the time of Constantine and the Christianization of the empire, the cult was in decline.
A final attempt was made by Emperor Julian (361-363) to revive pagan organization. Mithras was certainly included, again no doubt as Sol invictus. Julian died before any major steps could be taken. Emperor Gratian took measures in hand and closed all places of Mithraic worship in 377. Remnants of Mithras sanctuaries have been excavated all over the Roman Empire. There was one at Ostia, containing an altar and images of
A shrine to Mithras at Ostia (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S. J.)
Mithras and the bull. Others were found on the Danube and most interestingly, at Carrawburgh in Britain, part of Hadrian’s Wall. Built sometime in the second century C. E., the temple there was the center for a group of Mithraic legionaries in the local garrison. it suffered greatly at the hands of its Christian opponents.
See also religion.
Mithridates (1) (d. 51 c. e.) King of Armenia from 36-51 C. E. (minus the period of his exile by Emperor Gaius Caligula)
Mithridates was the son of Mithridates and the brother of Pharasmanes, both kings of Iberia. He was at Rome in 35 C. E. when Emperor Tiberius decided to recover the Arm e-nian throne from the Parthian-backed Arsaces, who had taken over the country in 34. Mithridates was eager for the o p p o rtunity of winning a kingdom, using threats and cunning to have his brother aid him in his campaign. Thus, with Pharasmanes’ support and troops, Mithridates had Arsaces poisoned before repulsing the inevitable Part h i a n co unterm easures. He was crowned king of Armenia in 36.
Tiberius was pleased because the new king proved a loyal and reliable client. Gaius Caligula, however, undid all of Tiberius’s diplomacy by having Mithridates summoned to Rome and then sent into exile in 41. Armenia was deprived of its leader until Caligula’s assassination. Claudius, trying to repair the damage done to Roman policy in the East, convinced Mithridates to mount another effort to regain his throne. The time seemed highly propitious, because Parthia was at that moment torn apart by internal struggles. Once again Pharasmanes provided support and troops, and Rome offered political prestige. These two weapons proved successful in overcoming Armenian resistance to the king. He remained on the throne, kept there in part by the absence of Parthian
Plots and by the presence of a Roman garrison at Gorneae, close to the Armenian capital of Artaxata. In 51, however, various pressures caused everything to unravel.
Pharasmanes’ son radamistus was anxious for his own kingdom, and his father pointed him toward Armenia. He won over various nobles in that court and then marched into the land with an army. Mithridates fled to the Roman garrison under the command of Caelius Pol-lio. Despite the loyalty of the centurion Casperius, who went to Iberia to call upon the honor of Pharasmanes, Pollio urged Mithridates to settle the matter with Radamistus.
World History
