In the spring of 334 Alexander crossed into Asia with approximately 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry (Arr. Anab. I 11,3; slightly different figures at Diod. XVII 17 and Plut. Alex. 15,1). He marched eastwards past various Greek cities which for now remained loyal to the Persians. At the River Granicus Alexander met the combined army of the satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia, Lydia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. Theirs was a forlorn cause: although responsible for the defense of their satrapies, Artaxerxes III Ochus’ satrapal reforms had deprived them of the ability to hire sufficient numbers of mercenaries to do the job. Alexander’s juggernaut rolled over this satrapal levy with ease (Arr. Anab. I 13-16; Diod. XVII 18-22).
Alexander appointed Calas the new satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, secured the satrapal capital at Dascyleium with its enormous treasury (Arr. Anab. I 17,1-2), and proceeded southwards into Lydia. Its satrap, Spithridates, had fallen at the Granicus, and the garrison commander in Sardis, with next to no troops at his disposal, simply surrendered. In possession now of two gargantuan satrapal treasuries any problems which Alexander may have had with the financing of his expedition were well and truly over. Asander became the new satrap of Lydia, but, significantly, in a departure from Persian administrative practice, Alexander did not entrust him with its financial administration and appointed a separate treasurer (Arr. Anab. I 17,3-8).
From Sardis, Alexander turned towards the coast. He entered the Greek city of Ephesus and, on the basis of affairs in this city, altered his policy towards the Greek cities in Asia Minor. Hitherto he had treated Greeks and non-Greeks the same; now he intervened in the constitutions of Greek cities, insofar as he could, and replaced the ruling oligarchies with democratic governments bolstered by the return of exiles whom the oligarchs had banished - exiles who owed their return to Alexander alone and whom Alexander might reasonably expect to show him some gratitude on this account (Arr. Anab. I 18,1-2; Harding, Nr. 107). He awarded these cities “freedom and autonomy” (Arr. l. c.; Harding, Nr. 106) and relieved them of the obligation to pay a “tribute” (phoros) (Arr. l. c.). The words were fair; but the reality was that the Greek cities continued to pay an obligatory syntaxis (“contribution”) (Harding, Nr. 106). Moreover, the interference in their constitutions and judicial affairs (Harding, Nr. 107) as well as Alexander’s imposition of garrisons (Harding, Nrr. 106 and 107) demonstrates that the facade of “freedom and autonomy” under Alexander’s regime was as hollow as ever it had been under the Second Athenian League.
To the south of Ephesus lay the Greek city of Miletus. Here Alexander met with stiff resistance, but in the end took the city after a difficult siege. By chance Alexander’s fleet had occupied the city’s harbor before a Persian fleet could arrive; this circumstance alone prevented the Persians from supporting the city’s defense by sea. Still at Miletus, Alexander disbanded his fleet (Arr. Anab. I 18,3-20,1; Diod. XVII 22-23) in an egregious strategic error which allowed the Persian fleet free rein in the Aegean and which Alexander within a few months strove to undo by forming a new fleet (see below).
From Miletus Alexander entered the satrapy of Caria. The satrapal capital of Halicarnassus, a Greek city, resisted energetically and, thanks to Alexander’s error, this time the Persians could supply it by sea. Alexander managed to take the city itself, but not the harbor which had its own fortifications and which remained in Persian hands. If Alexander ever envisaged any grand strategy of defeating the Persian fleet on land by steadily depriving it of ports (thus Arr. Anab. I 20,1), he abandoned it here when he left Halicarnassus’ harbor untaken. As satrap of Caria he left behind an elderly lady called Ada. She was a member of the Carian satrapal dynasty whose younger brother Pixodarus had displaced her even though her elder brother (and husband) Hidreus had wished her to succeed him as satrap (Arr. Anab. I 20,2 -23,9; Diod. XVII 23,4-27,5 - for Pixodarus’ lineage, see Diod. XVI 74).
Alexander proceeded into Lycia, part of the satrapy of Greater Phrygia, before turning northwards into the heart of the satrapy. A mere 1,100 troops garrisoned the satrapal capital of Celaenae. The low number gives an indication of how few troops the satraps had with which to defend their satrapies. The garrison agreed to surrender at a specified date if no help were forthcoming by then. Alexander accepted the offer, left 1,500 troops as a guard, and appointed as satrap Antigonus Monopthalmus (“one-eye” - the name Antigonus was common, and the Macedonians were unsentimental about nicknames to distinguish people with the same name) (Arr. Anab. I 29,1-3). It was now the winter of 334 to 333, and Alexander moved northwards to Gordium back in Hellespontine Phrygia (Arr. Anab. I 29,3-5). By now, Alexander had reversed his disbanding of his fleet, thus correcting his error (Curt. III 1,19).
In the spring of 333, Alexander left Gordium and swiftly passed through the satrapy of Cappadocia on the Taurus and marched towards the so-called Cili-cian Gates (see Figure 19.1), the chief pass through the Taurus Range into the satrapy of Cilicia. Owing to the pass’s narrowness, a small contingent can hold it indefinitely. Alexander’s wish to enter Cilicia probably explains the swiftness of his march through Cappadocia on the Taurus - he had to appear in Cilicia before its satrap, Arsames, could barricade the Gates against him. Arsames fled when he learned of Alexander’s approach (Arr. Anab. II 4,1-6). Cilicia was a small but wealthy satrapy, both in terms of agricultural produce and shipbuilding timber. In the ancient world armies lived off the land (less sentimentally: they stole from the natives), and Cilicia was one of the few places where
Figure 19.1 The Cilician Gates today. Source: Teogomez, Http://commons. wikimedia. Org/wiki/File:Puertas_Cil%C3%ADcias. jpg (accessed 12th February 2013)
Alexander might be able to provision his army for a considerable time. Once in Cilicia, Alexander took possession of Tarsus, the capital (with its own wealthy treasury). Alexander arrived in the spring; he stayed there until the Battle of Issus in November of 333 - a period of up to eight months, depending on the exact time of his arrival. The illness from which Alexander suffered at this time can account for the delay only partially.
World History
