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Face towers From about 1200 c. e., during the reign of JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219 c. e.) of ANGKOR in Cambodia, many temples were embellished with gigantic human faces carved from blocks of sandstone. These can also be seen on the gate towers of the city of angkor thom. The greatest concentration, with more than 200 examples, is found in the BAYON, the temple mausoleum of Jayavar-man VII, but they are also seen at banteay chmar, preah KHAN, TA PROHM, and Banteay Kdei. zhou daguan in 1296-97 described the heads over the entrances to Angkor Thom as being of the Buddha and said that one of them was covered in gold. Paul Mus also interpreted the towers as representing the Buddha. The original purpose might have been to depict the king as a bodhisattva looking out serenely over his kingdom.

Faience Faience is a manufactured material used in the production of jewelry, pottery, and decorative attachments. The word derives from Faenza, a town in Italy where it was manufactured during the 16th to 18th centuries. Faience can be made by covering a clay core with a tin glaze or, as in the INDUS valley civilization, by firing powdered quartz and covering it with a glaze incorporating copper and silica to produce a shiny surface.

Fan The title fan was recorded by Chinese visitors to the state of FUNAN in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam from at least the third century c. e. It is probably a rendition of the Khmer title PON, which was discovered on inscriptions dating to the period of the chenla kingdoms until 719 c. e. The latter title was restricted to highly ranked men with a SANSKRIT name and was inherited from the holder by his sister’s son. The most notable ruler holding the title fan was known to the Chinese as Fan Shih-man. He was recorded as a great military leader who defeated rivals and replaced then with his kinsmen to rule under him. He also led maritime expeditions against his enemies, but the extent of these campaigns is not known. The History of the Liang Dynasty describes how the ruler of Funan in the early third century c. e. “used troops to attack and subdue the neighboring kingdoms, which all acknowledged themselves his vassals. He himself adopted the style of Great King of Funan. Then he ordered the construction of great ships and, crossing right over the Gulf of Siam, attacked more than ten states.”

Farhad-beg-yailaki The site of Farhad-beg-yailaki was among many centers of buddhism investigated by sir AUREL STEIN in the early years of the 20th century. This site lies about 100 kilometers (60 mi.) east of hotan, China, the kingdom with which it was affiliated. Excavations in 1907 revealed the foundations of a monastery dating to the eighth century c. e. Stein uncovered the remains of a stupa, records written in the brahmi script, and painted wooden panels.

Faxian (337-unknown) Faxian was a Chinese Buddhist who traveled to the pilgrimage places of India in 402 c. e. and on his return translated many of the holy texts he had collected into Chinese.

He was aged 65 when he embarked on his journey and 79 on his return to China. He wrote a book entitled the Foguoji (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), which is an unparalleled source of information on the early history of BUDDHISM in India. His journey began by following the SILK ROAD from Gansu to dunhuang, and across the oases of the TARIM BASIN to HOTAN and KAXGAR. The information he provided on his visit to the state of shan-shan is invaluable in indicating that Buddhism continued to flourish there in the early fifth century. He noted that the king of Shan-shan favored Buddhism and that 4,000 monks were to be seen. He chose a particularly dangerous route across the Tarim Basin, probably because of the abandonment of some of the major western centers of Buddhism in Shan-shan. He remarked that the desert was inhospitable, with only the bones of the dead to guide his path. He then crossed by snowy Pamir Mountains to GANDHARA.

The first stages of his travels saw him cross land controlled by the Kidarite Huns, and he noted many flourishing monasteries and large stupas. At TAXILA in modern Pakistan he described how the local rulers and nobility gave generously to Buddhist foundations, and at Peshawar he admired the great monastery and stupa of KANISHKA I (100-26 C. E.). This was the location of the Buddha’s alms bowl, and 700 monks safeguarded it. At Hadda in Afghanistan he witnessed ceremonies revolving around the presence there of the Buddha’s skull. It was placed on a high dais, was covered in glass, and was the object of worship. He then visited the holy places where the Buddha was born, attained enlightenment, and entered nirvana. His travels took him to MATHURA, KAUSAMBI, PATALIPUTRA, and NALANDA. He greatly admired India, then ruled by Candragupta II (376-413 C. E.), for its warm climate, genial people, and their custom of not eating onions or garlic. His return journey took him south along the western coast of India to Sri Lanka, where he spent two years, and then by the perilous sea route to Southeast Asia, where his ship was wrecked, probably on the island of Java. Thence, he returned to China, where he commenced with the translation of the manuscripts he had collected. His description of this epic journey became known in the West only with the publication of a French translation in 1836. This had a profound effect on the young Alexander Cunningham, later director-general of the archaeological survey of India, who used the monk’s account to trace the major centers of Buddhism. Thus Cunningham identified the site of SANKISA by following Faxian’s description of his journey there from Mathura.

Fayaz Tepe Fayaz Tepe is located in northern bactria, near the confluence of the Amu Dar’ya and the Surkhan Dar’ya. It was associated with termez, lying just outside the city walls and about a kilometer from KARA tepe. The Buddhist monastery at Fayaz Tepe was discovered in 1968, when a shepherd found the head of a stone statue and drew the discovery to the attention of the director of the Termez Museum, a Mr. Fayazov. The site was named after him. Extensive excavations have uncovered a complete Buddhist monastery covering an area of 117 by 34 meters (386 by 112 ft.) and embellished with wall paintings and exceptional sculptures.

Built in sun-dried brick, the monastery has three courts. The earliest and central court lies behind a brick stupa that has survived virtually in its entirety Both are thought to date to the first century b. c.e. The court incorporates a colonnaded verandah in front of individual cells for the monks, while the surface of the stupa was painted with lotus flowers and images of the wheel of the law (the DHARMACAKRa). Four holes on its surface were found, to support flagpoles. Both the stupa and the central court were added to by the second century C. E. The stupa was embellished with four sets of steps to form a cruciform plan. The court had two further courts added. One contained rooms for prayers and meetings; the second included kitchens, a dining area, and facilities for weaving and making pottery vessels. Some shards in this area were inscribed in the BRAHMI and KHAROSHTHI scripts dating stylistically to the second century C. E.

One notable example of wall painting shows two haloed Buddhas with female adherents, standing on a bed of starflowers. The style of this painting resembles that of some of those at bamiyan. It is the sculptural remains, however, that stand out for their exceptional quality and completeness. Foremost is a third-century c. E. limestone carving of a seated Buddha with his halo represented by the branches of a pipal tree, in a niche 75 centimeters (30 in.) high. Two attendant monks stand, one on each side. The Corinthian-style columns that frame the niche indicate a strong Hellenistic influence. A stucco head of the Buddha still bearing much of the original paint was also found, its style suggesting that this site continued as an active monastery into the fourth century C. E.

Fengchu The site of Fengchu lies in the Zhouyuan, the Plain of zhou, in the Wei River valley, China. It is particularly notable as the site of a palace dating to the early period of the western zhou dynasty (1045-771 b. c.e.). The palace was constructed on a platform of stamped earth, and the design incorporated a central hall and two enclosed courtyards surrounded by colonnades and chambers. It differs from later palace structures in its air of secrecy and privacy, rather than an ostentatious location raised above its surroundings to ensure visibility. The roofs were probably made of thatch, and the plastered walls were decorated with mother-of-pearl. Perhaps the most significant find was a cache of oracle bones. These are very rare in Western zhou contexts, and the origin of this group is subject to debate, largely because it revealed the veneration of ancestors belonging to the SHANG STATE rather than the Western Zhou rulers. However, it is known that royal princesses were exchanged between the two dynasties before the conquest of Shang and that Zhou rulers did therefore have Shang ancestors. These divinatory texts reveal also the number of captives and cattle sacrificed during the relevant rituals.

Feng shui See geomancy.

Ferghana The region of Ferghana lies in the upper valley of the Syr Dar’ya River, north of the Pamir Range in Central Asia. It was strategically placed on the old silk ROAD that linked China with India and the Mediterranean world. It lay too far east to be overtaken by the ACHAEMENID or Seleucid empires and was never controlled by the bactrian Greeks, although many of their coin issues have been found in Ferghanan territory. The dry climate linked with the presence of rivers flowing off the snows of the Tien Shan Range generated a great emphasis on irrigation, even in the prehistoric period. The area first attracted the attention of the Chinese when it was visited by zhang qian in 121 b. c.e.; he reported that Ferghana was a place of vineyards and fortified towns, where fabulous horses sweated blood. In his own words: “The people are settled on the land, plowing the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. The region has many fine horses. The people live in fortified cities, there being about seventy or more cities of varying sizes in the region. The people fight with bows and spears, and can shoot from horseback.” Making fine wine was a major industry of Ferghana, but it was the superb horses that attracted most Chinese interest.

Five Classics The Five Classics are a set of early historic tracts traditionally seen as the oldest and most revered sources of Chinese history. They are said to have been collected, edited, and enhanced by confucius (551-479 B. C.E.), and they became the acknowledged source of knowledge on ancient wisdom and the moral behavior that was a central tenet of the Confucian school, particularly from the Western HAN dynasty on. The five texts cover a wide range of issues. Foremost is the Spring and Autumn Annals, which describe the history of the state of LU between 722 and 481 b. c.e., the period of the later Zhou dynasty, also widely known as the Spring and Autumn period. The Classic of Changes considers the nature of the universe and the procedure for interpreting divinations, and the Classic of Documents is a historic collection on the governance of early kings. The Classic of Poetry is a source for mainly early Zhou rituals, and, the Record of Rites sets out the norms for proper conduct.

Fu Hao (r. c. 1200-1181 b. c.e.) Fu Hao was one of three principal consorts of the Shang emperor Wu Ding, although his recorded wives number more than 60. She was often mentioned in the texts of the oracle bones recovered from

ANYANG, and it is possible to identify some of her responsibilities in the court.

For example, she was a wealthy landowner in her own right. She undertook important court rituals to consult ancestors and commanded troops in a number of military campaigns against the Tu, Ba, Yi, and Qiang people. The king himself consulted the oracles to ensure her health and well-being during pregnancies.

Her tomb, discovered in 1975 at Xiaotun, Anyang, about 200 meters (660 ft.) from the walls of the royal palace, revealed during excavations the following year a complete, undisturbed Shang dynasty tomb dating to about 1200 C. E. and falling within the reign period of Wu Ding. This tomb is most renowned for the wealth of the mortuary offerings for Fu Hao. These include 468 bronzes, easily the most significant group of ritual wine and food vessels known from Shang contexts. A unique assemblage of jade provides remarkable insight into Fu Hao’s interest in antiquities.

THE TOMB STRUCTURE

The tomb was no match for the massive cruciform royal graves in terms of size, but it uniquely had avoided the attentions of tomb robbers. In a rectangular pit 7.5 meters (about 25 ft.) deep and 5.6 by four meters in extent, at a depth of 6.2 meters, the builders had constructed a narrow ledge from which two niches were excavated into the walls of the pit. A further small pit was excavated into the ground at the very base of the tomb. on the surface, postholes suggested that a temple of some sort was constructed over the tomb, probably for holding ancestral mortuary rituals.

The excavators were able to reconstruct the internal ordering of the mortuary equipment. The base of the pit was lined with wood to form a chamber, within which lay nested and lacquered wooden coffins. unfortunately, the base was so waterlogged that the human remains have not survived. The base of the pit had received a dog and a sacrificed human victim, one of 16 individuals accompanying the primary burial, a number that included men, WOMEN, and children. Some of these individuals were placed in the wall niches on each side of the tomb, and others in the grave fill of layers of stamped earth.

THE BRONZES

Some of the bronzes were inscribed with the name of Fu Hao, thereby, for the only time in the history of Shang studies, illuminating the burial of a person specifically named in the oracle bones. The grave also contained about 7,000 cowry shells, 755 items of jade, many hundreds of bone ornaments, and three rare ivory cups decorated with turquoise inlay. The analysis of these unique assemblages has provided much crucial information. Thus the bronzes provide a measure for the high status of a royal consort. Many vessels are of unusual form, and others, while of established shape, are unusually large.

The two largest items are two ding vessels, each contributing 120 kilograms (264 lbs.) to the total weight of 1,600 kilograms (3,520 lbs.) of bronze in the tomb. Some bronzes seem to have been placed in dining sets; the numbers of wine vessels include 40 of a form known as a jue and 53 gu. Not all the bronzes were inscribed with the name Fu Hao. Two were inscribed with her posthumous name, Um Xin, and these are thought to have been cast by order of her sons when presenting sacrifices to her. It is also hard to avoid the conclusion that some of the bronzes were given to her by Wu Ding himself, a king who obviously held her in very high regard. Fu Hao had led Shang armies in a number of campaigns, and the bronzes in her burial also include 90 ge, or dagger blades, and several large axes. She owned bronze mirrors and bronze cheekpieces as part of a horse bridle. Fabric impressions that survive on the surface of many of the bronzes suggest that they were individually wrapped before being placed in the grave. An analysis of the composition of the bronzes reveals a mastery of alloying. Many of the vessels include between 15 and 20 percent of tin; others had up to 6 percent of lead added to ease the castability of the molten alloy.

THE JADES AND OTHER FINDS

Perhaps the most spectacular and unusual of all the mortuary offerings, however, were the three large ivory vessels inlaid with turquoise. Some of Fu Hao’s jade ornaments were more than 1,000 years old and were derived from the LIANGZHU CULTURE in the lower Chang (Yangtze) Valley; others came from the hongshan culture in the far northeast of China. Most, however, were locally made. They included a rare jade bowl and carved animals—phoenix, tigers, elephants, fish, and dragons. The tiger might well have been the inspiration for the TAOTIE masks found so often on the bronzes. The dragon was reputed to have the ability to accompany the dead to heaven. At least some of the jades, according to their composition, were made of raw materials mined in Hotan, far to the west of Anyang. Further evidence for a trading relationship with steppe peoples is in the form of distinctive bronze knives and ornaments bearing horses’ heads.

It is evident that bone hairpins were a treasured part of Fu Hao’s ornaments, for 527 were found in her grave, each minutely carved at the head in a range of patterns. She also took with her three combs to accompany the bronze mirrors. Hitherto, only fragments of ivory vessels had been found in Shang contexts, but Fu Hao’s tomb had three large examples.

For the social historian, the tomb of Fu Hao offers a unique opportunity to appreciate and evaluate the extremes of wealth associated with the royal members of Shang society If such a relatively small tomb of a royal consort could contain such riches, the kings’ deep cruciform burials most have included unimaginably wealthy offerings. For the student of Shang bronze technology, the sophistication of Fu Hao’s bronzes has required a reappraisal of the development of the casters’ skills, for before the opening of the tomb, the style of bronzes like those of Fu Hao were thought to be much later in the sequence. Perhaps the most significant of all the findings from this grave, however, is the tangible link between a person previously known only from the oracle texts and her physical remains and possessions.

Further reading: Loewe, M., and E. L. Shaugnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999; Zheng Zhenxiang. “The Royal Consort Fu Hao and Her Tomb.” In Mysteries of Ancient China, edited by J. Rawson. New York: Braziller, 1996.

Fujiwara Fujiwara was the new capital city of the YAM-ATO state and was occupied between 686 and 707 C. E. The importance of Fujiwara, however, may be judged from the fact that the streets of the new capital at Heijo-kyo were aligned precisely on those of its predecessor. At that period in Japanese history, the Korean Peninsula had just been unified under the SHILLA kings with the defeat of PAEKCHE and KOGURYO. This was accomplished through an alliance between Shilla and Tang China, and it posed an immediate threat to the independence of Yamato. It led to major changes in Japan. One change involved a much more rigorous system of taxation, another the exaltation of the imperial line, ushering in new legal codes according the emperor or empress autocratic power. One manifestation of such power, along the Chinese model, was investment in a capital city and palace so impressive as to leave no doubt as to the imperial authority. The architecture is known mainly from the NIHONGI, although the site has been somewhat explored. When Fujiwara was abandoned, a new capital was built at Nara.

The Fujiwara city was ordered by Empress jito (r. 686-97 C. E.) and continued in occupation under her successor, Mommu (686-707). According to the Nihongi, Prince Takechi inspected the proposed site of the new palace on the 29th day of the 10th month, 690 C. E. The empress Jito herself, with a large entourage, was there on the 19th of the following month. The construction, which was under way by 694, was a colossal undertaking in a low-lying area prone to floods. The palace alone required an estimated 4,000 tree trunks seven meters (23 ft.) tall, to be carried over a distance of 54 kilometers (32 mi.). Many thousands of tons of stones were required for the massive wall around the palace precinct, which was almost a kilometer square, and many roof tiles were fired to cover the roofs of the palace and its subsidiary buildings. The palace lay in a central position in the city, but its precise location relative to the extent of the city has not been identified. It may have been in the center or to the north of center, but more extensive excavations are required to confirm either possibility. It is known, however, to have lain within a walled precinct defined by a large stone wall girdled both inside and out by a moat. The wall was three meters (9.9 ft.) wide; the moat was five. Beyond the outer moat lay a 40-meter-broad band of unoccupied land, giving way then to the city streets. The palace included three major structures. To the north lay the private quarters of the empress, covering an area of 305 by 350 meters (1,000 by 1,155); the interior details are not known because of later disturbance. An impressive audience hall was constructed south of the residence, designed to have the maximal impact of grandeur on those who visited from home or abroad. The buildings to house administrative departments completed the palace precinct.

The actual plan of the rest of the city has not been determined through excavation; one problem is the absence of an outer wall. If, as some authorities have suggested, it comprised 96 insulae divided on a street grid forming eight city blocks from east to west and 12 from north to south, then the city would have covered a rectangular area 3.2 by 2.1 kilometers (1.9 by 6.9 mi.) in extent. It is, however, also possible that it was square, with the palace in the center. This needs confirmation through further excavations. Each square block was divided by smaller streets, in which archaeologists have revealed the presence of homes, wells, and alleyways. With a population measured in tens of thousands, the issue of sanitation is raised. A privy excavated at Fujiwara in 1992 was a simple hole in the ground covered by two wooden boards. There was no apparent means of flushing it, so it must be presumed that waste remained in place or was physically removed and disposed of elsewhere. Such lack of hygiene is documented in the recovery of parasite eggs in this facility.

Estimating the population of an ancient city is not straightforward. In the case of Fujiwara, much information is from an entry dating to the year 704 c. e. in the Nihongi record, which describes how each household in the city was given rolls of cloth. There were evidently 1,505 households. A later tax register from heijo-kyo has provided an average figure of 16.4 people per household, leading to an population estimate of about 25,000 people.

The mausoleum of jito and Emperor TEMMU (631?-686. C. E.) lies due south of the palace, beyond the city limit, but the city had a brief life. In 708 c. e. it was resolved to build a bigger and more magnificent capital on the lines of the Tang capital at Chang’an, 20 kilometers (14 mi.) to the north at Heijo (Nara).

See also nara state.

Further reading: Aston, W G. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D. 697. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Tuttle, 1995; Barnes, G. Prehistoric Yamato: Archaeology of the First Japanese State. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1988; Brown, D. M. The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Funan Funan is the name given to one of the earliest states on the mainland of Southeast Asia. There is no certainty as to the origin of the name, which was given to the polity in question by the Chinese and may be a Chinese rendition of the Khmer name phnom, or “hill.” It dates to about 100-550 c. e. and was located on the delta of the Mekong and Bassac Rivers in modern Cambodia and Vietnam. This is a strategic location, since it commands not only maritime routes leading from China to India, but also traffic up and down the Mekong River. The area was occupied in the prehistoric period, and the inhabitants prospered with the control of the international maritime trade to create a vigorous and powerful state. Funan was, however, equally vulnerable to any changes in the pattern of trade beyond its control. During the sixth century C. E., such a change occurred when the Chinese increasingly bypassed the delta. Funan then fell into a rapid decline, and the political center of gravity moved inland to emerging agrarian states known under the name of chenla.

EXPLORATIONS OF FUNAN

The first knowledge of this state was assembled and published by Paul Pelliot in 1903. A lengthy article was based on his translation of an archived Chinese report that resulted from a maritime mission to Southeast Asia by KANG DAI and Zhu Ying in the third century c. e. There were walled settlements and rulers who lived in a palace. A system of taxation involved dues on gold, silver, perfumes, and pearls, and there was a form of legal system that involved trial by ordeal. There were specialists in engraving and metalworking, and the ordinary people lived in houses raised on piles against the regular threat of flooding. The people kept written records, and a representative of the Indian Murunda king was present. The foundation of the state of Funan was, according to the Chinese visitors, the result of a union between an Indian named Kaundinya and a local princess.

It is not certain where the Chinese authors of the report employed by Pelliot made landfall in Southeast Asia. However, aerial reconnaissances by Paul Paris published in 1931 provide images of ancient canals crisscrossing the delta landscape and the outline of a large rectangular city now known as OC EO. On the northern margins of the delta, another walled city, known as ANGKOR BOREI, lay at the northern terminus of one such canal. The Chinese visitors noted that the capital of Funan had an inland location, and the size of Angkor Borei would qualify it at the very least as a major center.

Subsequent archaeological research, particularly by Louis Malleret and, more recently, by Vo Si Khai and Pierre-Yves Manguin, has confirmed much of what Kang Dai and Zhu Ying described. Oc Eo incorporated substantial brick temple foundations, workshops for the production of jewelry, evidence for casting metals, and wooden piles that would have supported houses. There are also

SEALS bearing brief texts in the Indian brahmi script and an abundance of evidence for trade involving Rome, India, and China. A series of sites has also been uncovered by Vietnamese scholars, again involving brick temples as well as brick vaults containing cremated human remains and rich artifacts. These include gold leaves bearing inscriptions and images of women, gold disks, gold rings, a gold flower, and jewelry fashioned from precious stones and glass. The gold leaves were decorated with deities, turtles representing Vishnu and his mount the eagle garuda, water buffaloes, elephants, snakes, conch shells, the sun, a house on piles and plants; many of these symbols relate to Hindi gods.

RULERS OF FUNAN

The Chinese histories contain notes on the names of successive rulers and their predatory wars against their neighbors. One early ruler named Hun Panhuang conquered chiefs on the edge of his kingdom and installed his sons and grandsons to rule there under his command. His son, called Pan Pan, was followed by a ruler known as Fan Shiman. The title pan or FAN might well be a Chinese rendition of the Khmer title PON, widely documented in later inscriptions. Fan Shiman is said to have launched expeditions against his neighbors. The history of the Liang dynasty, compiled in the seventh century C. E., records that a second Kaundinya ruled Funan and “changed the rules according to the customs of India.” The degree to which the indigenous peoples of Cambodia and southern Vietnam were subjected to Indianization has been critically examined, particularly by Michael Vickery. It is now considered probable that the local rulers selectively adopted certain Indian traits they saw as being advantageous. For example, a small corpus of inscriptions belonging to the Funan polity discloses the adoption of the Sanskrit language and Indian royal titles toward the end of the fifth century C. E.

INSCRIPTIONS

Few inscriptions survive, but their Sanskrit texts provide important information. The mutilated first few lines of the inscription from go thap, for example, refer to a ruler whose name began with Ja-, probably jayavarman of FUNAN (c. 480 C. E.), who had been victorious in battle against a king whose name began with Vira. VARMAN is a significant part of a royal name, for in Sanskrit it means “shield” or “protector.” This ruler founded many sanctuaries dedicated to Vishnu and placed his son, Gunavar-man, in charge of one, which had been “wrested from the mud.” This might be an allusion to the drainage of the Plain of Reeds where the inscription was set up. The sanctuary in question was dedicated to Vishnu, and the consecration was undertaken by Brahmans. A second inscription from Nak Ta Dambang Dek was set up in honor of Buddha. It cites King jayavarman and his son, Rudravarman (“protected by SIVA”), and describes how the king named the son of a Brahman as his inspector of property. A third text again mentions King jayavarman and his military victories. It also records the foundation of a hermitage, reservoir, and residence by his queen, Kulaprabhavati. Kula means “family;” prabhavat in Sanskrit may be translated as “majesty” Thus in the period 480-520 there were wars involving rival kings, the establishment of religious foundations in favor of exotic Indic gods, the presence of educated officiants, and a royal succession from father to son. Two inscriptions from the vicinity of Angkor Borei imply that this was the capital of Rudravarman, the last recorded king in this region. The inscription from Phnom Da mentions his name in several places.

Further reading: Higham, C. F W The Civilization of Angkor London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2001; Vickery, M. Society, Economics and Politics in Pre-Angkor Cambodia. Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for UNESCO, 1998; Vickery, M. “What and Where Was Chenla? “In Recherches Nouvelles sur le Cambodge, edited by F Bizot. Paris: EFEO, 1994.

Fuquanshan Fuquanshan is a site of the Songze and LIANGZHU cultures in China, located in the valley of the Suzhou River that links Lake Taihu with the estuary of the Chang (Yangtze) River. It is an artificially constructed mound measuring about 100 by 85 meters (330 by 280 ft.), in which 31 elite burials of the Liangzhu culture have been excavated. These are large graves including jades, ivories, and ceramics, each containing a coffin made by cutting and hollowing out a tree trunk. The primary interments are richly endowed with grave goods. Burial 139, for example, contained the remains of a young man, who was associated with 12 jade axes laid out in two rows from the waist to the ankles, a jade bracelet, a plaque, a bead, and a pendant in the form of a long awl. The cemetery appears to have been reserved for elite burials and was associated with much ritual activity There is one part of the site where an area 20 by three meters (66 by 10 ft.) has been heavily burned and coated with shell fragments, while burnt clay was often placed over graves. Another larger pit had a depth of 1.5 meters. It contained a platform, surrounded by large quantities of ash, as if ceremonies linked with burning were undertaken. These probably involved sacrificial rituals in honor of the ancestors.

The awl-like ornament from Burial 139, to judge from its location in the grave, was probably worn in the hair. A globular jade bead had been placed in the mouth. Fourteen painted pottery vessels were found beyond the feet. The skeleton of a young woman in a flexed position was found in a corner of this grave. She was accompanied by seven jade ornaments. Burial 145 also included additional burials of an older woman and a young boy The excavators noted that their position, with their hands behind their back and head outstretched, was compatible with sacrificial burial when still alive.

Fuquanshan provided a remarkable assemblage of jades and pottery vessels from mortuary contexts. A jade ax was found beside one of the elite skeletons. While finely finished, the blade was blunt and showed no sign of use. Its ceremonial nature is seen in two additional jade elements. It seems that the handle had a boat-shaped jade decoration on the far end and a curved and socketed jade terminus on the near end, with holes for securing it. The site has also furnished finely finished jade ceremonial tubes, or cong. One of these was decorated with four images of a god’s face, with fine cloud patterns incised on the nose, above a second panel containing the image of an animal mask. There are also bi disks, with diameters of about 20 centimeters (8 in.), which were perforated with a central hole. These were often found under the body and are thought to have been placed there to drive off malevolent spirits. Crescentic jade ornaments, with holes bored for attachment, were often found near the waist, while a remarkable assemblage of long, thin pendants of jade was recovered from the elite graves from this site. One of these, 15 centimeters (6 in.) long, was decorated with the face of a god. Another long jade with a point at one end and a small handle at the other is 34 centimeters long and was ornamented with the eyelids of a god. It might well have been of ritual importance. Burial 74 includes a fine necklace of jade beads; another grave furnished a remarkable necklace of 32 jade beads, four of which had an elongated awl shape; others were tubular, and four were in the form of a bi disk. This unique assemblage of Liangzhu jades also included a fine belt hook, hat ornaments, and bracelets.

Other rare and beautiful offerings included an ivory-handled implement of an unknown but probably ceremonial function. A detailed animal mask had been carved on its surface. The ceramic vessels from the cemetery attest to highly skilled manufacture. Many of the forms suggest ritual or ceremonial feasting, such as a jar with a bulbous base, handles, and an elaborate lid. The body bore fine incised decoration of clouds, birds, and snakes. There are also several jugs that could have been used for serving wine. One tall example, 20 centimeters high, has a broad handle and fine lid.