The Greek Wars

As the Second Punic War came to an end, the Romans came into greater contact with Greek kingdoms to the east. The vast empire of Alexander the Great had broken up into independent city-states and three major dynasties. The Antigonids controlled Macedonia, the Seleucids ruled over a large part of the Middle East from their capital in Syria, and the Ptolemies controlled Egypt. A less-powerful dynasty, the Attalids, ruled a part of Asia

Minor called Pergamum, in what is now western Turkey (Asia Minor is a peninsula in western Asia bordered by the Black and Mediterranean Seas). Relations between the different Greek kingdoms and city-states varied, as some kingdoms tried to gain power at their rivals’ expense. The Greek conflicts and Rome’s desire to protect its own interests in the eastern Mediterranean led to a series of wars in the region.

Man and God

The Roman hero during the Second Macedonian War was Titus Quinctius Flamininus (228-174 B. C.E.). A consul, he led the army that won the major battle of the war, and he granted independence to the Greek people under Philip's rule. Some Greek towns worshiped him as a god. He was the first Roman to receive that honor—some of the later Roman emperors, such as Augustus and Tiberius, were also worshiped as gods by citizens of the eastern part of the empire.

Even while fighting Carthage, the Romans had started to play an active role in the east. In 219 B. C.E. King Philip V (237-179 B. C.E.) of Macedonia protected a Greek ruler who challenged Roman authority. Rome then sent ships into the region to harass Macedonian allies and army bases. Four years later, Philip signed a treaty with Rome’s main foe, Hannibal. Rome then signed treaties with some smaller Greek states in the region, and they fought Philip while Rome battled Hannibal. (This Greek war is known as the First Macedonian War.) As the Second Punic War was coming to an end, Philip tried to expand his holdings around the Aegean Sea, the main body of water near the mainland of Greece and neighboring islands. In 200 B. C.E., Rome declared war on Macedonia, to protect its Greek allies, stop Philip’s aggression, and punish him for his earlier alliance with Hannibal.

After defeating the Macedonians in 197 b. c.e., Rome’s next Greek opponents were the Seleucids. Under their king, Antiochus III (242-187 B. C.E.), the Seleucids tried to expand their territory. Fighting with several Greek allies, the Romans defeated Antiochus in 190 b. c.e.. Roman troops fought in both Greece and Asia Minor, but they did not remain in those regions. With the Greek wars, Rome did not acquire new territory, but it did expect the Greek communities to follow Roman orders. Rome also gained from the slaves and riches its soldiers brought home. Rome was asserting itself as the most powerful state in the region, and smaller states feared its power.

Despite Rome’s strength, Macedonia once again challenged the Romans, and once again Rome won. After this victory in 168 B. C.E., Rome ended the Antigonid Dynasty and split Macedonia into four separate republics. This marked the first time Rome totally destroyed one of the three Greek kingdoms that traced its roots to Alexander the Great. But even as they defeated the Greeks in battle, the Romans continued to embrace Hellenism.

During the second century B. C.E., Rome was almost constantly at war. In addition to fighting in the east, the Romans battled to secure their control of the Iberian peninsula. They also fought Gallic tribes in the north of the Italian peninsula. In those two regions, the Romans took direct con-

Trol of territory. Unlike the Greeks, the various western tribes did not have established political and social systems that the Romans could easily influence-and be influenced by. To preserve its military gains and keep control, Rome had to leave troops behind and set up its own political systems.

The Roman Dictator

Today the word dictator is used in a general way to describe any leader who has complete control over others and uses power ruthlessly. To the Romans, however, a dictator originally had a clearly defined rule. During the monarchy, a king might name a magister populi—master of the army—to command his troops for him. Later, under the Republic, elected officials could choose to give this master's power to a person called a dictator. During a military or political crisis, the dictator held imperium for up to six months.

One legendary dictator was Cincinnatus. In 458 b. c.e., he left his farm to accept the dictator's power and help Rome defeat an enemy army. After 16 days, Cincinnatus returned to his farm. After the American Revolution, some American soldiers founded the Society of Cincinnati, named for this Roman who fought for his nation during a crisis, then returned to his civilian life. A city in Ohio also takes its name from this Roman dictator.

In the northern part of the Italian peninsula, a few Gallic tribes were wiped out by the fighting; most survived and became part of the growing Roman republic. The Republic also set up new colonies in the region, as it had done years before in the southern part of the peninsula. The Romans had a tougher time fighting in the Iberian peninsula. Some of the local tribes, such as the Celtiberians, fought in small groups that staged sneak attacks against the Roman forces. (The Celtiberians were a mixture of the Celtic tribes who settled in the Iberian peninsula and the native Iberian people.) The local fighters struck quickly, then fled into the mountains or countryside-a tactic that is now called guerrilla warfare. Rome spent more than 70 years trying to assert its control over the Celtiberians and other native Iberian peoples, finally winning a major victory in 133 B. C.E. Even then, it took several more decades for Rome to secure total rule over the Iberian peninsula.

The Romans also fought one last Punic War. During the second century B. C.E., Carthage regained some of its former strength, as it was still a major trading power in the Mediterranean. The Carthaginians, however, could not hold off the neighboring African kingdom of Numidia. The Numidians took advantage of their friendship with Rome to seize territory from Carthage. Around 150 B. C.E., the Carthaginians finally fought back, even though this military action violated their earlier peace treaty with Rome. The Numidians then turned to Rome for aid.

In the Senate, a well-known official named Cato the Elder (234-149 B. C.E.) supported the Numidians. He had fought the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War and still detested them. For several years, he ended every speech he made by saying, “Carthage must be destroyed” (as quoted in Barlett’s Quotations). Cato led the effort to battle Carthage once again.

This time, however, the Carthaginians did not have the will for a long war. They knew Rome’s military would crush them. The Carthaginians surrendered without a fight and accepted Rome’s surrender terms. But when the Romans demanded that the entire city of Carthage be moved inland, away from the shore, the Carthaginians refused. As sailors and sea traders, their lives depended on being close to the water. Their resistance led to the Third Punic War. When it ended in 146 B. C.E., the Romans followed Cato the Elder’s demand and completely destroyed the city. Rome then took control of Carthage’s lands, which became the Roman province of Africa.

Military "Mules"

Under Marius, Roman soldiers began to carry their own basic supplies, such as cooking and building tools, a tent, and enough food for three days. With their heavy backpacks, the soldiers were sometimes known as "Marius's mules."