Some of the earliest descriptions of the underworld occur in myths from ancient Mesopotamia (pronounced mess-uh-puh-TAY-mee-uh). One tells how the fertility goddess Ishtar (pronounced ISH-tahr) descends into the kingdom of the dead, ruled by her sister Ereshkigal (pronounced ay-RESH-kee-gahl). Ishtar is killed trying to overthrow Ereshkigal. The other gods convince Ereshkigal to release Ishtar, but Ishtar cannot leave the underworld without finding someone to take her place. She determines that her husband, Tammuz (pronounced TAH-mooz), should be her substitute. Some scholars believe that this myth is related to the annual death and rebirth of vegetation.
The underworld Ishtar visits is the same as that described in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, in which the character Enkidu (pronounced EN-kee-doo) has a vision of himself among the dead. The underworld described is a dim, dry, dreary place called the House of Darkness, a house that none who enter leave. The dead dwell in darkness, eating dust and clay. Although recognizable as individuals, they are pale and powerless shadows of their former selves.
This image of the underworld also appears in early Jewish mythology. The Jewish underworld was Sheol (pronounced SHEE-ohl), which means “pit.” It held all the dead who had ever lived. Over time, as the idea ofjudgment in the afterlife took root in Jewish and then Christian belief, the early, neutral concept of the underworld changed. Sheol became a place ofpunishment and torment for the souls ofsinners.
The ancient Greek vision of the underworld was, at first, much like that of the early Semitic cultures. All the dead went to the same place—a vague, shadowy underworld populated by the ghosts, or shades, of the dead. This realm is sometimes called Hades (pronounced HAY-deez), after the god who ruled it. Gradually the underworld of Greek and then Roman mythology became more elaborate. The kingdom of Hades was said to lie either beyond the ocean or deep within the earth, separated from the world of the living by five rivers: Acheron (pronounced AK-uh-ron, meaning “woe”), Styx (prounounced STIKS, meaning “hate”), Lethe (pronounced LEE-thee, meaning “forgetfulness”), Cocytus (pronounced koh-SEE-tuhs, meaning “wailing”), and Phlegethon (pronounced FLEG-uh-thon, meaning “fire”). Cerberus (pronounced SUR-ber-uhs), a fierce, three-headed, dog-like monster, guarded the entrance to the underworld, which consisted of various regions. The souls of the good dwelled in the Elysian (pronounced eh-LEE-zee-uhn) Fields or Islands of the Blessed, while those who deserved punishment went to a deep pit called Tartarus (pronounced TAR-tur-uhs).
To the Maya of Mesoamerica—a region that encompassed a large area of what is now Central America—the underworld was a dreadful place, but not one limited to sinners. Only people who died a violent death went to a heaven in the afterlife. Everyone else entered Xibalba (pronounced shi-BAHL-buh), the underworld, whose name meant “place of fright.” Any cave or body of still water was an entrance to Xibalba. The dead were not confined to the underworld forever. In the Mayan sacred book, Popol Vuh, the Hero Twins Hunahpu (pronounced WAH-nuh-pwuh) and Xbalanque (pronounced shi-BAY-lan-kay) outwitted the lords of Xibalba and left the land of death. The souls of kings and nobles could also escape from Xibalba if they were summoned by living relatives during the Serpent Vision ceremony. The Aztecs of central Mexico believed that the underworld consisted of eight layers, each with its own dangers, such as drowning or sharp blades. Souls descended through the layers until they reached Mictlan (pronounced MEEKT-lahn), the bottommost part of the underworld.
The underworld of Japanese mythology was Yomi (pronounced YOH-mee), land of night or gloom. It was empty until the creator goddess Izanami (pronounced ee-zuh-NAH-mee) died after giving birth to the god offire. The maggots that appeared in her dead body grew into a host of demons who populated Yomi and tormented the souls of the wicked. Although Yomi was said to be a dark region ofbarren plains and lonely tunnels, artists often portrayed it as an underground palace crowded with the dead and demons. Also there was Emma-O (the Japanese version of Yama, the Buddhist god of death), who judged the souls as they arrived in Yomi.
Journeys to the Underworld Many myths tell of heroes who entered the underworld while still alive. Those who survived the ordeals of the journey often returned to the living world transformed by the experience, perhaps bearing special wisdom or treasure. Some heroes wished to rescue or reclaim a loved one who had died. In Greek mythology,
Demeter (pronounced di-MEE-ter) went down to the underworld to try to bring back her daughter, Persephone (pronounced per-SEF-uh-nee), whom Hades (pronounced HAY-deez) had carried off. The Greek hero Orpheus (pronounced OR-fee-uhs) traveled to the underworld in search of his wife Eurydice (pronounced yoo-RID-uh-see).
Chinese Buddhist mythology tells of a hero named Radish, a follower of Buddha (pronounced BOO-duh). Before leaving on a journey, Radish gave his mother, Lady Leek Stem, money for begging monks. The mother failed to give the money to the monks, but she lied to her son and said that she had done so. When Lady Leek Stem died, she went to hell. Radish became so holy that he was made a saint named Mulian. With Mulian’s enlightenment, or elevation of spirit, came the knowledge of his mother’s torment. He went to hell to save her, although Yama, the king of hell, warned him that no one had the power to change a sinner’s punishment. On his way Mulian had to travel past fifty demons, each with the head of an animal and swords for teeth. By waving a wand that Buddha had given him, he was able to make them disappear. Finally Mulian found his mother nailed to a bed, but he could not release her; only Buddha could change a sinner’s fate. Mulian asked Buddha for mercy for his mother, and after the proper prayers, Buddha released Lady Leek Stem from hell.
The Ashanti people of Africa have a myth about Kwasi Benefo, who made a journey to the underworld. Kwasi Benefo married four women in turn, and each one died. Miserable and alone, he decided to go to Asamando, the land of the dead, to seek his lost loves. He went to the place of burial and then beyond it, passing through a dark, silent, trackless forest. He came to a river. On the far side sat Amokye, the old woman who greets dead women’s souls. She felt sorry for Kwasi Benefo and allowed him to cross the river, though normally the living are forbidden to enter Asamando. Soon Kwasi Benefo found the invisible spirits of his wives. They told him to marry again, promising that his fifth wife would live and that they would be waiting for him in the underworld when his time came to die. Kwasi Benefo fell asleep and awoke in the forest. He brought from the underworld the precious gift of peace of mind, which allowed him to marry and live a normal life for the rest of his days.
The Other World In some myths the underworld is a kind of alternative reality, a land not merely of the human dead but of different beings who Live according to different rules. Celtic mythology contains many accounts of an otherworldly realm. Its location was said to be far away on remote islands or lying beneath the sea or the ground. Certain caves or hills were believed to be entrances to this other world.
In Wales the other world was called Annwn (pronounced AHN-oon), which means “not-world.” It had a number of different sides. Primarily, the other world was the kingdom of the dead, and its grim ruler was known as Arawn (pronounced AHR-oun) to the Welsh and Donn to the Irish. The other world, however, could also be a joyous and peaceful place or a source of wisdom, magic, and enchantment. The fairies, demons, spirits, and other supernatural beings who lived there were neither purely good nor purely evil. Depending on the circumstances, they could bring humans either harm or good fortune.
Celtic folklore is filled with legends of living people who entered the other world. Some went voluntarily, like King Arthur of Britain, who led an army into Annwn to capture a magical cauldron (kettle). Others were lured into the other world by fairies, sometimes in human or animal form. The theme of a human straying into the other world appears in many European fairy tales that draw on the old notion of the underworld as a supernatural realm. In such stories, a human who ate or drank while in the other world could never leave. Those who resisted food and managed to leave found that time had different meanings in the two worlds. After spending a single night in the other world, a person might return to the world above to find that years had passed.
The underworld is sometimes a mirror image of the world above. According to some African myths, the underworld is just like the ordinary world except that it is upside down: its people sleep during the day and are active during the night. In the Congo, tradition says that the world of the living is a mountain and the underworld of the dead is another mountain pointing downward. Chinese myths tell of “China plowed under,” an underworld inside the earth that mirrors every province and town in the world above.
The Underworld as a Source of Life The underworld does not always represent the kingdom of the gloomy dead or the home of dangerous beings. In some myths it serves as the point of contact between the surface world of the living and the earth’s powerful creative forces. Among the Ibo people of Western Africa, Ala, the goddess of the underworld, is also the earth goddess who protects the harvest, which emerges from the ground. Ala receives the dead; burial is thought to be placing the dead in her pocket or womb. However, Ala also ensures life by making people and animals fertile.
The creation myths of many American Indian cultures say that people and animals emerged from an underworld or series of underworlds. In these stories the underworld is a womb in which life is nurtured, or prepared, until the time is right for it to enter the world. One of many such myths is told by the Zuni, who say that the Ahayuuta twins were sent deep into the earth by their father the sun god to guide unformed creatures up to the daylight. Once above the ground, the creatures changed into human beings.
According to the Jicarilla (pronounced hee-kuh-REE-uh) Apache of New Mexico, in the beginning all people, animals, and plants lived in the dark underworld. Those who wanted light played a game with those who liked darkness. The light-lovers won, and the sun and stars appeared. Then the sun, looking through a hole in the roof of the underworld, saw the surface of the earth, which was covered with water. Eager to reach this hole in the underworld, the people built four great hills that grew upward. But after girls picked the flowers from the hills, the hills stopped rising. Then the people climbed to the roof on ladders made of buffalo horns. They sent the moon and sun through the hole to light the world and dispatched the winds to blow away the water. Next they sent out animals. Last of all, the people climbed up into the new world. Once they reached the surface, they spread out in four directions. Only the Jicarilla stayed in the original homeland near the hole that led up from the underworld.
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