In ancient Egypt medical knowledge was recorded and transmitted by means of written documents, listing problems and relating solutions. About a dozen papyri survive, dating from the Middle to the New Kingdom. Like the mathematical papyri, they were all found between the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, and many of them come from illicit digs. They have all been thoroughly studied, translated into German, and systematically published between 1954 and 1973 (Grapow et al. 1954-73); some of them have been translated into English and French (Allen 2005: 70-115; Breasted 1930; Stevens 1975; Jonckheere 1947; Iversen 1939; Barns 1956).
Among the most important documents, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains a systematic list of cases, nearly all referring to victims of trauma; the Ebers Papyrus, the Hearst Papyrus, and the Berlin Papyrus contain collections of medical cases of various kinds. Gynaecology is the subject of the Kahun and Calrsberg YIII Papyri, whilst Chester Beatty VI deals with rectal diseases. The Ramesseum papyri contain gynaecological, ophthalmic, and paediatric problems, and the papyrus held in the British Museum contains mainly magical spells.
Another important source of information on ancient medicine is represented by human bodies, in particular by well-preserved mummies (Ikram and Dodson 1998). The ancient Egyptians appear to have suffered from the same diseases as we do today, ranging from toothache to cancer, and to have incurred several types of trauma relating to their professions or to warfare (Halioua and Ziskind 2005). Modern techniques, such as X-rays and CT-scan (computed tomography), provide plenty of information on the life and death of the people, commoners and kings whose bodies have been found (Halioua and Ziskind 2005: 53-65; see also Balout et al. 1985; Forbes 1993; Hawass 2005; Forbes, Ikram, and Kamrin 2007).
Finally, artistic representations may also offer important information on traumatic events and medical conditions, including dwarfism, spinal deformities, and various types of hernia (Nunn 1996: 57, 79, 93, 166; Reeves 1992a: 32-48). Artistic conventions, however, should not be taken too literally: the most controversial case is the Pharaoh Akhenaten (whose body has not been found), usually represented with physical features that may either depend on the development of an artistic canon or as signs of chromosomal or genetic abnormality (Nunn 1996: 83-4; Reeves 1992a: 46-48).
World History
