B. c.e.) Coruler of the Ptolemaic Period The son of cleopatra vii and Julius caesar, Ptolemy XV started his reign in 44 b. c.e. Although he was only a child, he was raised to the throne to protect him. Ptolemy XIV who had been coruler with Cleopatra VII, had been slain to make room for him.
Called caesarion, his throne name meant “Heir of the Living God, the Chosen One of ptah, Living the Rule of RE, the Living Image of amun.” He was depicted with his mother on the wall of the temple of dendereh as being offered to the gods. The Roman Senate in 42 b. c.e. sponsored Ptolemy XV’s elevation to the throne. He witnessed the disastrous battle of actium and the death of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony and then was executed by the Romans, reportedly a death ordered by Augustus (Octavian) at the urging of Aeries Didymos, Ptolemy XV’s former tutor.
Ptolemy Apion (d. 96 b. c.e.) Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the bastard son of ptolemy viii euergetes ii (170-163, 145-116 b. c.e.). Ptolemy became the governor of CYPRUS and ruled there until his death in 96 b. c.e.
Ptolemy Magas (fl. third century b. c.e.) Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the son of BERENICE (1) and stepson of ptolemy i SOTER (304-284 b. c.e.). When Ptolemy I married Berenice (1), Ptolemy Magas was made the governor of CYRENE. His daughter was BERENICE (3), and she married PTOLEMY III EUERGETES.
Ptolemy Philadelphos (fl. first century b. c.e.) Prince of the Ptolemaic Period
He was the son of cleopatra vii (51-30 b. c.e.) and Marc ANTONY. The youngest child of this pair, Ptolemy Philadelphos was made the ruler of Asia Minor and Syria. The deaths of his parents ended his powers.
Punt It was an unidentified land believed to have been located in eastern sudan or Eritrea, and important in all eras of Egypt as a trade resource. The Egyptians reached Punt by going through the bitter lakes in the eastern Delta to the Red Sea or by going through the wadi ham-MAMAT on the KOPTOS Road to the city of kuser on the Red Sea. Kuser was provided with shipbuilding facilities, and expeditionary fleets were outfitted for journeys to Punt in this city
Punt offered electrum (a gold and silver mixture), gold, ivory, myrrh, incense, skins, boomerangs, cosmetics, spices, wild animals, resins, ebony, and aromatic gums in trade. Egypt’s actual trade with Punt dates to the reign of sahure (2458-2446 b. c.e.), possibly earlier. In the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) an Egyptian died while building a trading fleet on the Red sea. Pepi II (2246-2152 b. c.e.) sent many expeditions to Punt, called “the land of the god.” myrrh, used as incense in religious festivals and rites, was imported in vast quantities and commonly tallied by scribes as a result of these trading ventures. Myrrh trees were also planted in the temple compounds.
In the Middle Kingdom, montuhotep ii (r. 20612010 B. C.E.), SENWOSRET I (r. 1971-1926 b. c.e.), amen-EMHET II (r. 1929-1892 b. c.e.), and other pharaohs sent expeditions to Punt. In the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.) such trade journeys were increased, and hatshep-SUT (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) is well connected to this practice. Reliefs from her period depict the gathering of goods, the loading of vessels in Punt, return voyages, and the presentation of the trade wares in Thebes. Weights and measures are recorded as well.
TUTHMOSIS iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.), amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 B. C.E.), HOREMHAB (r. 1319-1307 b. c.e.), seti i (r. 1306-1290 b. c.e.), ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.); and RAMESSES III (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.) also sent expeditions to Punt during the New Kingdom period. A stela in Amenhotep Ill’s mortuary temple mentions Punt. The HARRIS PAPYRUS from Ramesses Il’s historical period gives a depiction of such expeditions. The royal and common people of Punt came to visit Egypt and were also depicted in reliefs. The illustrations in a temple in the reign of Hat-shepsut clearly portray a Puntite family that was brought to Egypt on one of the expeditions of the time.
A chief is shown with his wife, two sons, and a daughter. The wife of the chief is portrayed as having pronounced curvature of the spine and folds of fat on her arms and ankles. This condition has been diagnosed as symptoms of various diseases of the African region. These same reliefs depict Egyptian fleets sailing to and from the fabled land, a convention that continued in the Ramessid Period.
Pure Mound A legendary site called Abaton in some records, the Pure Mound was located on the island of BIGA, near philae. The primeval mound and this site were all considered the first true portions of the earth that arose out of nun, the original dark void or chaos at the moment of creation.
Puyenre (fl. 15th century b. c.e.) Priestly official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) as a high-ranking priest of the temple of amun. It is, however, as an architect that he is principally remembered. He created the beautiful shrine of mut that Hatshepsut erected, and he was consulted on other royal building projects. Puyenre survived Hatshepsut and was accepted by her successor, tuthmosis iii, whose karnak building projects were influenced by his designs. Puyenre was buried with honors in Thebes. His tomb at qurna has reliefs portraying his work, including a session of tallying Asiatic spoils and tributes.
Pylon They are the majestic architectural entrance forms adorning Egyptian temples, dating probably to the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.), possibly earlier. The pyramid and sun temple of niuserre (r. 2416-2392 B. C.E.) at ABUSIR and ABU GHUROB display a form of pylon. The name pylon was taken from the Greek word for gate. The Egyptian name was bekhenet.
The structure was composed of two battered towers linked by a masonry bridge with cornices. The flat surface on the top was reserved for rituals honoring the god re. Most were built over a pile of rubble, but some had interior chamber and stairs. The pylons were decorated with reliefs and completed by flagstaffs. The pylon represented the AKHET (2), the religious symbol for the eternal
A pylon from the temple of Isis at Philae. (Courtesy Steve Beikirch.)
HORIZON. The divine patrons of the pylons were the goddesses ISIS and nephthys.
Pyramid The monument erected as a tomb and stage for mortuary rituals and immortalized at giza, the pyramid, called mr by the Egyptians, was considered the place of ascent, the point of departure for the royal deceased on his journey to eternity, and was normally given special names to signify the special status as a tomb of the pharaoh. Architecturally, the pyramid represented the culmination of the mortuary structures elaborated from the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 B. C.E.).
The mastabas, the brick tombs of the early historical periods, were provided with burial and offertory chambers, and they represent the original mortuary buildings of Egypt. Some, such as those erected for the rulers and queens in saqqara and abydos, were designed with facades having recessed and projecting walls, after the palaces of the era, and became known as “mansions for eternity.” One such mastaba, that of an official in the reign of den in the First Dynasty named Nebtiu, started out to resemble a pyramid but was then altered to its traditional form.
In the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b. c.e.), in the Third Dynasty, imhotep, his vizier, placed a series of stone mastabas atop one another in a graduated design, forming the STEP PYRAMID in SAQQARA. The Step Pyramid was originally 204 feet high, composed of six separate layers or “steps,” each one successively smaller in size. The base measured 358 feet by 411 feet. The layers of the pyramid were faced with limestone and were surrounded by a vast complex of buildings, replicas of those erected to celebrate sed festivals, and a wall, which was carved in relief to resemble a palace facade. The entire enclosure measured 1,800 by 900 feet and was paved with limestone. The walls contained 211 bastions and 14 gateways.
The Step Pyramid contained a 90-foot shaft that led to underground chambers and passageways. The burial vault was 13 feet high, encased entirely in granite, with a plug to seal the entrance made of the same material. The eastern section of the pyramid contained tombs of Djoser’s wives and sons. Eleven shafts have been discovered, sunken to almost 100 feet. The enclosure around the pyramid contained shrines, altar chambers, courts, a heb-sed hall, storerooms, and the tombs of Djoser’s courtiers. The site was actually a miniature city, with its own priests and liturgical schedules. Other step pyramids were started soon after Djoser’s reign. Some have been discovered at seila, Zawiyet el-Mayitin, E1-kula, edfu, and on the elephantine; they appear to be mostly tombs of nobles.
The true pyramid appeared in the Fourth Dynasty, in the reign of snefru (2575-2551 b. c.e.), who built two pyramids at dashur and finished his father’s pyramid at MEIDUM. The traditional pyramidal complex evolved from
The narrow corridor of stone leading into the interior of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. (Courtesy Steve Beikirch.)
That tomb, which contains the various components that were considered necessary to the purpose of the monument. The first attempted pyramids rose on the fringes of the desert area west of Memphis, between Meidum and ABU ROWASH. The great pyramids at giza are best known today, but there are more than 70 other such monuments, large and small, stretching the length of the Nile as far south as modern Sudan, where other pyramids were erected. The centerpiece of the pyramid complex was the pyramid.
The pyramid was a solar symbol, stemming from the cult at HELIOPOLIS. Its four sides were designed to face the cardinal points of the earth. The entrance was normally on the north side, sometimes above ground level and sometimes level with the ground. Beside the pyramid was placed an offertory shrine, a chapel for holding mortuary rites and rituals in commemoration of the royal cult. This building contained ceremonial chambers and the mandatory FALSE DOOR for the use of the ka (“soul”) of the deceased ruler. Religious insignias and statues adorned the chambers, and the walls were inscribed and covered with reliefs.
A MORTUARY TEMPLE was constructed near the pyramid, with an elaborate entrance corridor and central court. Most of these have disappeared over the centuries, but when the pyramids were built they were lavish shrines, with offertory chambers, rooms containing altars, storage rooms, and the traditional SERDAB. The serdab contained statues of the deceased pharaohs positioned so that their eyes could peer through slits in the wall to view the daily ceremonies conducted in the deceased’s name and memory. Nonroyal tombs also contained serdabs. A causeway led from this temple to a valley temple on the banks of the Nile or at a distance in the desert. The walls of the causeway were elaborately decorated, and originally they had stone roofs. valley temPLES were the sites of initial funerary observances. They comprised various chambers designed to accommodate the priests involved in the obsequies.
Less elaborate pyramids and tombs were also built for queens and for favored nobles and certain members of the royal family. These were constructed near the main pyramid. Solar barks or mortuary boats were also brought to the complex. Some, fashioned out of wood and gold, were buried in deep pits in Fourth Dynasty pyramids. The pyramid of KHUFU at Giza was provided with two boat pits. Walls surrounded this entire pyramidal complex, a tradition dating to the great limestone enclosure that surrounded the Step Pyramid in Saqqara. Private tombs and the burial places of lesser members of the royal clan or of the court were placed just inside these walls.
The construction of the pyramid was an involved and lengthy process. For example, some estimate that the Great Pyramid of Khufu required the full-time labor of thousands of workers over a 20-year period. The first activity involved in the pyramid construction was the choice of a site by the architects and artists of the royal court, normally chosen because of the type of ground available. The desert fringes, with rocky cores and outcroppings, normally offered the firmest base for the weight of the construction. The site deemed appropriate would be leveled by workmen, and then the foundation dug out of the ground according to the design and architectural plan. The foundation was extremely important, and most pyramids contain foundation stelae and other commemorative inscriptions, much like the cornerstones
The second monument at Giza, the burial complex of Khafre (Chephren). (Courtesy Steve Beikirch.)
Of modern buildings. When the dedication rituals were completed, workmen began to dig out the various chambers, corridors, and passageways for the subterranean level of the monument.
Some unfinished pyramids, such as the pyramids at ABU ROWASH and ZAWIET EL-ARYAN, have magnificent underground chambers and hallways. Stairways, passages, ramps, portcullis (stone slabs lowered into place to block halls at critical junctures, especially in the Fourth Dynasty pyramids), traps, and stone plugs were installed beside the burial rooms and storage areas. Large ramps for lowering the granite or alabaster sarcophagi were also erected, sometimes with staircases on either side.
Construction on the pyramid would then start. Some had solid stone cores, much like the mastaba levels of Imhotep’s Step Pyramid, but others had initial walls, filled with rubble, mud, and sand. Layers of masonry supported the walls, and these were encased in fine stone and then capped by the pyramidion. It is thought that ramps were built to each level as the construction continued, so that the stones could be moved into place. As the pyramid grew in height, the appropriate ramps would be heightened. There is some debate about whether ramps were used. It is possible that mounds were built and attached to the sides or fashioned on the ascending levels. Such conveniences were removed when the casings were being applied.
When the structure was completed, with the chambers painted and inscribed and the casing put into place so that the stone shimmered and glistened in the sunlight, the funeral of the deceased commenced at the site. The sarcophagus was lowered into the burial chamber, where rituals were also conducted. Some chambers were carved out of a single piece of stone. When the sarcophagus of the ruler was firmly in place, the burial chamber was sealed and plugged, and the corridors leading away from it were also blocked by various means. When the funeral cortege was outside, the entrance to the pyramid was sealed by moving stones into place to complete the wall to make the structure secure.
The Great Pyramid at Giza, erected by Khufu (2551-2528 b. c.e.), is the most outstanding example of the genre, the only surviving wonder of the ancient world. The base of the pyramid covers 13 acres, and a total of 2,300,000 yellow limestone stones were used in its construction. The pyramid was called the Horizon of
Khufu and was positioned in keeping with the astronomical and religious traditions of the era. Originally part of a vast complex, the pyramid now stands amid only two other great pyramids and various smaller tombs of queens and other members of the royal family.
Suggested Readings: Hawass, Zahi A. The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. New York: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1998; Isler, Martin, and Dieter Arnold. Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 2001; Lawton, Ian, and Chris Ogilvie-Herald. Giza: The Truth: The People, Politics, and History Behind the World’s Most Famous Archaeological Site. Montpelier, Vt.: Invisible Cities Press, 2001; Siliotti, Alberto. Guide to Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997; Verner, Miroslav, and Steven Rendall, transl. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt’s Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press, 2001.
Pyramidion See benben.
Pyramid Texts The oldest surviving examples of religious literature in Egypt, these texts were actually inscriptions on the walls of the royal pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (2465-2323 b. c.e. and 2323-2150 B. C.E.). The priests of Heliopolis wrote the texts that appear in the tomb of unis (r. 2356-2323 B. C.E.) and those of other pharaohs and their queens. Unis’s Pyramid Texts served as the standard for other inscriptions. Funerary formulas, spells, incantations, and magical phrases that enabled the pharaoh to become the sun and a star were included. The texts provided the traditional forms called the “sun-ladder,” which could be used to ascend into the heavens. They were discontinued when the pharaohs abandoned the construction of the pyramids. As the tombs were smaller at the close of the Old Kingdom (2134 b. c.e.), coffin texts repeated the formulas in confined spaces.
See also cannibal hymn; tomb texts.
Pyramid workers Groups of skilled artisans and builders who served as the builders of the pyramids of the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.), these groups are now called “gangs,” and they left inscriptions detailing their work. The gangs used colorful names such as “Friends of khufu” and the “drunkards of menkaure.” Some gangs existed for more than six decades. Their support facilities, residence, and necropolis areas are being uncovered in modern excavations.
See also deir el-medina; giza; servants of the PLACE OF truth.
Pythagoras (d. c. 500 b. c.e.) Famous Greek mathematician who visited Egypt
He was on the Nile in the reign of amasis (570-526 B. C.E.). Pythagoras went to Memphis, Heliopolis, and then to THEBES. He remained in the region for more than two decades, earning the respect of the local priests and eventually being allowed to take part in sacrifices to the gods.
Qa’a (Qa’a hedjet Bieneches) (d. 2760 b. c.e.) Last ruler of the First Dynasty
He reigned c. 2770 b. c.e. until his death. His name meant “His Arm Is Raised,” and manetho, the Ptolemaic Period historian, listed him as Bieneches. Few details of his reign have survived, but he is recorded in the king lists of SAQQARA, ABYDOS, and Turin. Stone vessels bearing his name were found in the pyramidal complex of djoser (r. 2630-2611 b. c.e.). Qa’a was possibly the son of
SEMERKHET.
He was probably buried at abydos, where two stelae were discovered on the east side of the tomb. The Abydos gravesite was a deep pit with a burial chamber and magazine roofed with timber. Some 26 graves surround his Abydos resting place. A tomb in Saqqara was once assigned to Qa’a, but it now is considered to be the grave of a noble named menkhaf. Four Saqqara funerary complexes date to Qa’a’s reign, and stelae of Qa’a’s officials have been discovered there.
Abandoned for tanis in the Twenty-first Dynasty (1070-945 b. c.e.), and stones, monuments, and other pieces were taken to Bubastis in the Twenty-second Dynasty (945-712 b. c.e.).
Qar (fl. c. 2200 b. c.e.) Official of the Sixth Dynasty He served as a judge and vizier. Qar’s tomb in abusir is a vast complex, containing the burials of several generations of his family Painted reliefs depict many aspects of that historical period and false doors are part of the design. The tomb has an open court with side chambers.
Qarta (fl. 23rd century b. c.e.) Priestly official of the Sixth Dynasty
He served pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b. c.e.) as chancellor. Qarta was a priest and a noted librarian and archivist. He was buried in the necropolis reserved for esteemed nobles in SAQQARA, honored by his grave near Pepi I.
Qakare Iby (fl. c. 2100 b. c.e.) Ruler of the brief Eighth Dynasty
All that remains from his undocumented reign is a small pyramid in southern saqqara, bearing his name, which translates as “Strong Is the Soul of Re.” The Pyramid Texts, popular in earlier dynasties, adorn Qakare Iby’s pyramid.
Qantir A modern village adjoining Khataneh in the eastern Delta, once possibly the site of per-ramesses, the site served as the capital of the Ramessids (1307-1196, 1196-1070 b. c.e.), near bubastis (Zagazig). The site was
Qarun, Lake A body of water in the northwestern edge of the faiyum, also called Berket el Kurun, or Qarun Pond, the present lake is only a vestigial reminder of the original body of water that was once subject to inundation by the Nile. By the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), the lake no longer exchanged water with the river. Now it is a marshland, growing saltier, but still supporting a variety of fish and migratory birds.
Qas This is the Egyptian word for an embalmed body that has been wrapped in linen for burial.
See also mortuary rituals.
Qasr el-Saghah A site in the western area of the FAIYUM, located at the base of a limestone cliff, Twelfth (1991-1783 B. C.E.) and Thirteenth (1783-1640 b. c.e.) Dynasty tombs were discovered there. A workman’s town was active in qasr wa’-l-saiyad, which also had a military garrison. The remains of this town include a terrace and stairway, “pan-graves” were also uncovered there.
Qebhet A goddess considered the personification of “cool water,” therefore a patroness and symbol of the eternal paradises awaiting the dead beyond the grave, she was a daughter of anubis, although originally a serpent deity. In some eras, Qebhet was associated with regional NILE and SOLAR CULTS. Her popularity was confined to a few nomes or provinces.
Qasr Qarun This is a site on the western extremity of Lake qarun, also recorded as Dionysius Qasr Qarun and serving as a staging place for caravans to baharia oasis in the LIBYAN DESERT. A temple to the god sobek, dated to the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.), dominates the region. The temple has corridors, chambers, tunnels, and spiral staircases. Oracular secret niches are part of the design. There was once a roof chapel on the structure as well.
Qebhui He was an Egyptian deity, the lord of the north wind. The god was usually depicted as a four-headed ram with four wings or a man with four ram heads.
Qedeshet A Syrian goddess introduced into Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b. c.e.), Qedeshet became part of the Min-Reshef triad in Upper Egypt. She was depicted as a naked woman holding snakes and flowers and standing on a lion.
Qasr wa’-l-Saiyad It is a site on the Nile, south of aby-DOS, where First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.) tombs have been found. These are rock-cut chambers for the local nomarchs of the territory Vast and elaborately decorated with reliefs, the tombs belonged to the nomarchs Idu Seneni, Tjauti, and others.
Qatna This was a city-state east of the Orontes River and KADESH. When the great mitanni empire fell victim to HITTITE expansion during the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 B. C.E.), Akizzi, the king of Qatna, sought an alliance with Egypt.
Qau This was the Egyptian name for the ancient road leading to the porphyry quarries in the northeastern desert area in the sinai.
See also Egyptian natural resources.
Qaw el-Kebir A site on the Nile south of assiut, called Tjebu or Djenga by the Egyptians and Antaiopolis by the Greeks, Qaw el-Kebir is a Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 B. C.E.) necropolis that was refurbished by later dynasties. PTOLEMY IV PHILOPATOR (221-205 B. C.E.) constructed a temple on the site, and ptolemy vi philometor (180164, 163-145 B. C.E.) restored the structure.
Qebehsennuf He was a divine being, the son of horus, associated with mortuary rituals. The Four sons of Horus served as guardians of the organs of the deceased, removed from the body during embalming processes and placed in canopic jars. Qebehsennuf guarded the intestines of the deceased. The canopic jars holding such organs were designed with hawk heads.
See also pillars of shu.
Qift See KOPTOS.
Quarrel of Apophis and Sekenenre (Ta’o II) It is a
Text that dates to the Ramessid Period (1307-1070 b. c.e.) and deals with the opening events of the Theban assaults on the HYKSOS holdings in the Delta. The document, incomplete in its surviving form, demonstrates the Egyptian bias toward the Hyksos and does not clearly explain the reasons for the war that ensued.
Sekenenre ta’o ii (r. c. ?-1555 b. c.e.), the ruler of THEBES and Upper Egypt, received a message from APOPHIS (r. c. 1585-1553 b. c.e.), the Hyksos, or Asiatic, ruler at avaris in the Delta. The messenger related Apophis’s complaint that the snoring hippopotami in the sacred pool at Thebes were keeping the Hyksos ruler awake at night. Considering the fact that Apophis’s royal residence was about 400 miles to the northeast, the Thebans, upon hearing the complaint, were “stupefied.” It was obvious to Ta’o II and his courtiers that Apophis was either out of his mind or acting in a belligerent fashion. The text ends abruptly, so the actual discussion and response are not provided.
Ta’o II began a campaign to oust the Hyksos, who ruled Lower Egypt as far south as cusae. He was brutally slain, however, and his son, kamose, replaced him as the ruler of Thebes. Kamose actually carried on the military confrontations against the Hyksos and was approaching Avaris when he too died. Apophis was already deceased. ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b. c.e.), Kamose’s brother, would be the one to actually oust the Asiatics from Egypt and start the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.).
Quarries They were the geological conformations of ancient Egypt, especially in its southern regions, and characterized by limestone cliffs. Limestone, favored by the Egyptians for the casings of pyramids, was abundant at various sites throughout the Nile Valley. Granite was found in Aswan in two varieties: the red, called Syenite by the Greeks (after Syene, Greek for Aswan), and the black. Basalt, calcite, diorite, obsidian, porphyry, quartzite, and serpentine were among the minerals quarried. A variety of semiprecious stones were also mined.
The quarry sites of the Nile Valley included
El-Tureh (Tura), a site opposite Giza, where fine limestone was extracted
Gebel el-Ahmar, northeast of modern Cairo, which yielded quartzite
Bersha, near el-Tureh (Tura), known for limestone Gebel el-Silsileh, north of Aswan, a source of sandstone
Hatnub, near ’Amarna, quarried for alabaster Ibhet, south of Aswan, contained black granite, with red granite available from other quarries in the territory
Gebelein, south of Luxor, offering beige limestone Qurna, a source of dolomitic limestone near Thebes Wadi Hammamat, containing graywacke, near Kop-tos
Aswan, which offered sandstone (quartzite) and granite and served as the southern boundary Nubia, an important source of hard stones and minerals, modern Sudan.
Western Desert, providing diorite gneiss and possibly carnelian, west of the Nile.
Wadi el-Hudi, yielding amethyst, south of Thebes.
Quarry Map See bekhen quarry maps.
Quban (Contra-Pselkis) It was a fortress located opposite el-DAKKA and occupying a strategic position just south of the first cataract of the Nile in nubia (modern Sudan). Three circular walls with rounded bastions protected the fortress at Quban. senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 B. C.E.) probably originated the first defense elements here. Quban’s fortress was refurbished by the rulers of the Ramessid Period (1307-1070 B. C.E.) when they garrisoned Egyptian holdings in northern Nubia. amen-EMHET iii (r. 1844-1797 b. c.e.), tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 B. C.E.), and ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) made major renovations on the site.
Qubbet el-Hawwa A site on the bluff at Aswan, overlooking the Nile, called “the Dome of the Wind,” it is a necropolis containing tombs from the old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) and the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B. C.E.). Some military and trade expedition leaders were buried at Qubbet el-Hawwa, including harkhuf, pepi-
NAKHT, and SARENPUT.
Queens The royal consorts of the rulers of ancient Egypt who derived their rank and powers from their husbands, these women were themselves often the daughters of rulers, but they could be aristocrats or even commoners. in some instances women of the harem, or lesser wives, attained the rank of queen by giving birth to an heir. In the cartouches of royal Egyptian women, the designations “King’s Daughter,” “King’s Wife,” or “King’s Mother” were carefully applied. Though many princesses of the royal line did not marry their brothers, or half brothers, the firstborn royal daughter often did.
As queens, royal wives administered the palace and the harems and had some say in state affairs of the nation or the capital. Queen mothers, whether royal or commoner, those who had given birth to an heir, were elevated in the reigns of their sons and given additional honors. They were distinguished by wearing the vulture crown.
In some periods the rulers married their daughters also. AKHENATEN, for example, married several of his daughters, and ramesses ii made his daughters consorts after their mothers died or retired. amenhotep iii was encouraged by Queen tiye (1) to marry their daughters, Princesses sitamun (2) and iset (3), probably in the hope of increasing the number of heirs to the throne.
Some queens were from foreign lands. kiya, the wife of Akhenaten, was believed to be a mitanni princess, and ma’at hornefrure, wife of Ramesses II, was probably the HITTITE princess mentioned in the bentresh stela. tuthmosis III had three Syrian wives, daughters of chieftains, who were buried in separate tombs and provided with duplicate funerary regalia. Amenhotep III married a princess from Babylon.
Egyptian princesses were not given in marriage to cement foreign alliances, no matter how persistent the requests, until the late eras of Egypt, when foreign groups held the throne. To enhance his prestige, one Asiatic ruler wrote that he would accept any Egyptian woman of high birth as his bride, knowing that he could pass her off as a princess to his own people. Those princesses who did not marry heirs to the throne wed officials or remained at court unmarried.
There were queens who usurped the throne or held political power temporarily as regents for their minor sons. Regents include merneith of the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b. c.e.), believed to have been the wife of DJET and the mother of den, and ankhnesmery-re (2) of the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.), who served as coregent with her brother, the vizier djau, for pepi ii. In the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.) two female regents assumed the throne themselves: hatshepsut of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b. c.e.) and twosret of the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b. c.e.). A woman ruler, NITOCRIS (1), ended the Sixth Dynasty, according to some lists, and another, sobekneferu, closed the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b. c.e.).
The queens, whether in command of Egypt or serving as a consort to the pharaohs, remain fascinating facets of Egyptian history for the modern world. Some of them left an imprint on their own times, and others stand as exotic examples of feminine charms on the Nile.
In the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 B. C.E.), Merneith, probably only a regent, had two mortuary complexes built at ABYDOS and saqqara, using the royal insignias. neithotep, the possible mother of aha, the first ruler of Egypt, was honored with similar mortuary monuments, one containing the seals of the fabled narmer.
In the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.), the two queens named hetepheres left relics of their existence: one in tomb furnishings that had to be moved because of grave robberies, the second as a witness to royal dynastic feuds. The khamerernebty queens have left their own mark. The second Queen Khamerernebty is commemorated by a beautiful statue that depicts her beside the ruler KHAFRE in a remarkable display of equality and femininity. KHENTAKAWES (1), the wife of shepseskhaf, is called the “Mother of the Fifth Dynasty.” Two sisters named Ankhnesmery-Re, given to Pepi I in marriage, bore him heirs, and one served as regent for her son, Pepi II.
In the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.), a bevy of women accompanied montuhotep ii in his tomb at deir el-bahri, and on the sarcophagi of many of them the world is told that the inhabitant was “the Sole Favorite of the King.” The mother of amenemhet i (Nofret), a usurper, was honored by her son when he had cemented his claims to the throne. Sobekneferu, the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, was a woman who maintained her reign for only four years.
As the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.) is better documented, this period of Egyptian history provides a roster of famous women. tetisheri, the commoner wife of ta’o I of the Seventeenth Dynasty, was the grandmother of ’ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom, and she lived to an old age with him and Queen ah’hotep (1). ’Ahmose was married to ’ahmose nefertari, who gained prominence by appearing with the pharaoh at public functions and by having her name mentioned in public records. She was deified after her death with her son, AMENHOTEP I.
Hatshepsut, the daughter of tuthmosis i, claimed the throne after serving as the regent for Tuthmosis III and ruled Egypt, building a temple at deir el-bahri and sending expeditions to punt and other sites in continued trade. tiye, the commoner wife of Amenhotep III, appeared in public records and in foreign correspondence. nefertiti, the commoner wife of Akhenaten, stands unrivaled as an example of grace and loveliness from that age. Kiya, the foreign-born second wife of Akhenaten, is depicted with her own exotic charms.
In the Ramessid Period women such as nefertari, whose loveliness graces shrines on the Nile, including the temple built in her honor at ABU simbel, speak of a cul-
Nefertiti, the queen of Akhenaten, whose name means "The Beautiful Woman Has Come." (Hulton Archive.) tured era. Twosret, who served as a regent for a time, took the throne with her foreign vizier, bay, at her side.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 B. C.E.) and the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.), the queens of Egypt did not have the powers of their sisters in the past. Another sort of woman, serving as the god’s wife OF AMUN at Thebes, had considerable political and religious powers instead, serving as the spokespersons for their royal families in the capital.
The arrival of the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.), however, brought women of vigor and intellect to the courts. They were Greeks, not Egyptians, as no native women were the mothers of the Ptolemaic rulers. Their exploits and adventures were varied, and many of these queens suffered at the hands of their relatives. Cleopatra VII (r. 51-30 B. C.E.) was the last sole ruler of Egypt, and she was notorious throughout the ancient world of her time as a brilliant, enchanting, and politically astute individual who held her own in the company of the leading men of the times.
World History
![The Battle of Britain [History of the Second World War 9]](https://www.worldhistory.biz/uploads/posts/2015-05/1432582012_1425485761_part-9.jpeg)
