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3-06-2015, 22:52

Bas-reliefs

INDIA

The embellishment of temples with relief carvings has a long ancestry in india, and the practice was adopted in Southeast Asia and along the silk road probably as a result of acquaintance with Indian architectural techniques. The Great Stupa at sanchi, for example, is surrounded by a railing incorporating four toranas decorated with narrative reliefs depicting events in the life of the Buddha. some scenes also provide illuminating depictions of war. In southern India, the Virupaksha temple at PATTADAKAL includes bas-reliefs showing scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata on the columns. One of these depicts the Churning of the ocean of Milk to obtain the elixir of immortality. This theme came to be particularly popular at Angkor in Cambodia. To the northwest, kham zargar in Afghanistan is a Buddhist monastery that has yielded reliefs on schist showing the worship of a bodhisattva and the nirvana.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

SELAGIRI HILL in western Mynmar (Burma) is a location of the greatest sanctity because, according to legend, the Buddha and some followers flew there from India. Investigations on selagiri Hill have identified a brick stupa, associated with a series of magnificent sandstone reliefs dating to the sixth and seventh centuries c. E. depicting events in the life of the Buddha.

The decoration on the exterior of temple buildings— scenes from Hindu epics and myths, representations of court and everyday life, and historical events—has a long ancestry in Cambodia. During the period of chenla kingdoms (550-800 C. E.), brick temples incorporated stone lintels. The surface of the brick was carved to portray palaces and their aristocratic occupants, while the stone lintels were heavily decorated with mythical scenes and occasionally with depictions of court activities. At Hari-haralaya, brick temples were decorated with images of deities as well as rich floral ornamentation rendered in painted stucco. The expansion of relief decoration, however, occurred with the increasing use of sandstone as a construction material. Panels bearing scenes from Hindu epics are a particular feature of the baphuon temple pyramid, the mausoleum of udayadityavarman ii (1050-66). The temples of angkor wat and the bayon stand out on the basis of the quality and quantity of their relief decoration. The former contains the longest continuous bas-relief known, incorporating scenes from the court of King SURYAVARMAN II (r. 1113-50) and the king’s army marching to battle. Individual commanders are named in small adjacent inscriptions. Battle scenes follow, including a dramatic rendition of the battle of kurukshetra. There are also scenes of heaven and hell and an outstanding account of the mythical churning of the ocean of milk to produce AMRITA, the elixir of immortality. A 17th-century Japanese visitor to angkor drew a plan of the temple and observed that some of the reliefs retained traces of gilding.

The walls enclosing the Bayon temple pyramid of JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219) are covered in reliefs. These, while of lesser quality than those of Angkor wat, are particularly important in showing scenes drawn from everyday life, as well as battles against the Chams. The former include servants preparing food for a feast and serving it to the elite in an al fresco setting, a woman in labor attended by midwives, two men playing chess, hunting with a bow and arrow, net fishing, and construction work. one panel shows the interior of a Chinese merchant’s house, another a Chinese trading junk. The battle scenes on land and water show vicious hand-to-hand fighting between the Khmer and the Chams. These must reflect the recent wars in which Jayavarman VII freed the kingdom from Cham invaders. Further scenes of warfare are seen at the remote temple of banteay CHMAR, which was built by Jayavarman VII in honor of his son and four military heroes. banteay srei is one of the most attractive and famously decorated temples. Built in a hard pink sandstone, this miniature building incorporates many 14th-century reliefs that take inspiration from Hindu epics.

The same situation also applies to the cham civilization centers in Vietnam. At dong duong, there are many fine reliefs showing the Buddha, while dancers and ascetics are depicted on some of the reliefs from my son.

CHINA

Temple reliefs in stone have not survived to the same extent in China, but there is a large corpus of HAN DYNASTY carvings that portray aspects of everyday life. An example from sichuan shows a group of people harvesting with hand-held sickles, another shows people husking rice with a tilt hammer. There are also clay reliefs that portray other industrial activities. one shows a winery, another depicts salt production in Sichuan. A market scene reveals a special walled precinct, within which people run their stalls, and purchasers, who have entered by the East Market Gate, as seen in an explanatory inscription, come to buy.

The region of Nanyang in southwestern Henan Province is noted for the stone slabs decorated in low relief or incised with images that illustrate the enjoyment of the table, of music, and entertainment. Several such mortuary reliefs contain scenes of men bull baiting.

Sources of salt, and as the Chu pressed westward, so the Ba impinged on the Shu.

See also angkor.

Ba state The Chang (Yangtze) River Valley south to Lingnan in China followed a separate course of cultural development from that documented in the central plains of the Huang (Yellow) River, and it was long relegated to a supporting role in Chinese history. Recent excavations, however, have begun to redress this imbalance. Thus the origins of rice cultivation have now been sourced in the central Chang lakelands by 6500 B. C.E., followed by an expansionary series of movements up - and downstream and through the passes to the south. Early urbanization is seen at the site of Chengtoushan (4000 B. C.E.), and at SANXINGDUI (1400-1100 B. C.E.); bronzes even more remarkable than their contemporaries at anyang have been recovered from sacrificial pits. The southern populations in question almost certainly did not speak Chinese, but they were in exchange contact with the Shang and Zhou states, for it is recorded that turtleshells for divination, as well as kingfisher plumage, cowries, and rhinoceros horn, were southern products much in demand in the northern states. There was also a widespread bronze form not found in the central plains, the large ceremonial bronze drum.

The Ba were one of these southern groups. They occupied the land above the Chang gorges in eastern Sichuan and spread north into Shaanxi and south into Guizhou. To the east, they bordered the rising power of the Chu state, while their western margins coincided with the people of SHU. The earliest documentary reference to the Ba appeared in the Shang oracle bones (1200-1045 B. C.E.), where the king divined on the prospects of a military campaign against the Ba. The Ba seem to have participated in the battle of muye that saw the Zhou triumph over Shang in 1045 B. C.E., and thereafter typically they are recorded as donating exotic birds to the Zhou king. The Ba survived in a competitive climate through military prowess. They cast fine bronze weapons, many decorated with their chosen icon, the tiger. Their large drums were also often surmounted by a cast tiger. These items were embellished with a rudimentary pictographic script unlike that of the central plains, which employed images of animals, plants, and humans, as well as some abstract signs. Some symbols incorporate a boat with masts and oars and a human arm linked with a flower bud. No long texts have survived, and it has so far proved impossible to decipher them.

The Ba people entered into military alliances with their powerful Chu neighbors during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B. C.E.), but there was always a tension fueled by the growing power and ambition of the Chu. In particular, the Ba people controlled important

Ba system The establishment of the western zhou DYNASTY of China in 1045 b. c.e. introduced a feudal system of government, in which members of the royal lineage were granted landed fiefs on the borders of the new kingdom to put alien land under central control. This was a logical and sensible step but had the inevitable consequence that over time the blood ties slackened with increasing genealogical distance between center and periphery. By the end of the western Zhou, the kings who ruled with divine approval under the mandate of heaven had become so weakened relative to the powerful feudal states that they relied on the latter’s support for their survival. while retaining the aura of sovereignty, they became increasingly enfeebled. Under these conditions, political leadership was taken by the rulers of the then BA STATE.

Ba means “the senior one.” Zhuan Gong of the state of ZHENG was foremost in protecting Ping, the first ruler of the EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY, after the king’s move east at the end of the western Zhou dynasty. However, his loyalty was tested under King Huan of Zhou (r. 719-697 B. C.E.), and in a confrontation the king was injured. This was an important turning point in the role of the king, and increasingly it was Zhuan Gong who took the political initiative, up to his death in 701 b. c.e. He could thus be seen as the first Ba. With the death of Zhuan Gong, the state of QI assumed dominance. Qi had several geographic advantages in terms of trade, the supply of salt, and potential for expansion to north and east. Moreover, under the lord Huan Gong, deep-seated changes were made to state administration whereby the splintering effect of a feudal system was replaced by the establishment of 15 divisions for administrative purposes, divided into groups of five. One division was controlled by the overlord, the others by senior ministers. The artisans and fieldworkers were also divided into groups under central administration. This had the effect of greatly increasing efficiency and the power of central mobilization of forces. Qi thus became the Ba state, with Huan Gong effectively the leader of a coalition. Resulting conflicts with the rising power of CHU to the south were successfully concluded, and the institution of interstate conferences led to the production of a uniform policy on such matters as the control of irrigation water and the organization of trade. One provision was the exclusion of women from political affairs.

Huan Gong of Qi died in 643 b. c.e., and the renewed specter of feudalism was seen in a power struggle between his sons. The Qi state thus declined in power and influence, and under Jin Wen Gong (r. 636-628 B. C.E.), JIN became the Ba state. However, by the sixth century B. C.E., Jin, Chu, Qi, and qin had all assumed dominance in their own territories, and the role of the Ba ceased to have relevance. As these states increased their power and ambition, the seeds were sown for the period of WARRING STATES.

Battle scenes Commemorations of great battles fill many pages of the Indian epics the RAMAYANA and MAHAB-HARATA. These were subsequently depicted on the walls of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Thus at SANCHI, located in Madhya Pradesh, India, the railings incorporating four toranas are decorated with narrative reliefs of scenes of war in which one can observe battle elephants, the walls of a besieged city, and groups of archers. Horse cavalry and chariots join the siege, while the defenders reply from battlements with bows and arrows or repel attackers with clubs. The Indian battles were also a fertile field of inspiration for the builders of ANGKOR in Cambodia. The reliefs on the BAPHUON of UDAYADITYAVAR-MAN II include images of war chariots, but full depictions of an army and battles are first seen on the bas-reliefs of ANGKOR WAT. The procession of the army of SURYAVARMAN II includes the king and his great generals, each riding a war elephant. Virendradhipativarman is seen surrounded by nine parasols. Ahead of him in the column is Jayayud-dhavarman, with eight parasols. His troops wear distinctive helmets with deer-head images. Rajasinghavarman has 13 parasols and two banners, but pride of place goes to the king. He has 15 parasols, five fans, six fly whisks, four banners, and—in front of his elephant—a standard of Vishnu riding Garuda. Even his elephant wears a splendid jeweled headdress. His presence is signaled by the sacred fire being carried aloft and by an orchestra of trumpets, conches, drums, and a gong. There are ranks of foot soldiers and cavalry, including both Khmer and vassal troops.

The same men and arms are then portrayed in the mythical Battle of KURUKSHETRA. Leaders are seen on their elephants or on horse-drawn chariots. Most wield bows and arrows. The infantry carry spears and protect themselves with circular shields. Fighting appears to have included hand-to-hand encounters involving whole formations. The later reliefs of the BAYON and BANTEAY CHMAR include ballistae, for launching a large spear, mounted on elephants. These appear to have been an innovation in warfare that reached Angkor after the completion of Angkor Wat. The deadly effect of massed arrows was countered by the use of panels designed to withstand their impact without impeding the vision of the Khmer archers. There are also graphic scenes of naval encounters between the forces of JAYAVARMAN VII and the Chams (see cham civilization), in which warships are used as floating fortresses from which soldiers fight with spears and bows and arrows. At the Bayon, two vessels seem to be in the act of ramming each other.

Battle scenes are also found in KUSHAN contexts. At KHALCHAYAN in Uzbekistan, a palace reception chamber dating from the first century B. C.E to the first century C. E. was decorated with images of warriors on horseback wearing leather armor and wielding bows and arrows as well as with deities that seem to have been modeled on Hellenistic gods, such as Athena and Apollo. PANJIKENT, a Sogdian center located about 40 (24 mi.) kilometers east of Samar-qand, was occupied from the fifth to the eighth centuries C. E. The rich inhabitants decorated their homes with painted scenes, including archers on horseback leaping over dead bodies, a theme taken from their epic stories.

In China, battle scenes take the form of tomb models and decoration on ceramics or bronzes. The most notable battle scene comes from the funerary pits of the first emperor, QIN SHIHUANGDI (259-210 B. C.E.). These show units of archers, chariots drawn by four horses, and supporting infantry. Guards at the flanks and rear are located to withstand a surprise attack. Another pit contains a detachment of infantry, chariots, and cavalry. The archers carry crossbows. A third pit incorporated the command center, with some soldiers forming an honor guard.

A second set of terra-cotta soldiers comes from a pit associated with the tomb of a king of CHU at Shizishan in Jiangsu Province. Infantry and cavalry are represented, but there are no chariots. The same mix of foot soldiers and cavalry is seen at a rich WESTERN HAN royal tomb at Yangjiawan in Shaanxi. The 1,800 infantry soldiers and 580 members of the cavalry are modeled at about 50 percent full size, and each individual is completed in full battle dress. A third-century B. C.E. tomb of the WEI state known as the Jizhong tomb contains a remarkable battle scene cast into a bronze vessel. It shows archers, spearmen, and soldiers wielding halberds and fighting from boats. One can also see a wheeled scaling ladder to assault defensive walls. One panel depicts decapitated soldiers.

Bayon The Bayon temple, originally known as Mad-hyadri, lies in the center of the city of angkor thom in Cambodia. It began as the state temple mausoleum of King JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219) and incorporates large carved stone heads, considered representations of the king as a bodhisattva, an enlightened one, on the temple towers. The outer walls are decorated with a series of reliefs, which provide an unparalleled glimpse of life during the reign of Jayavarman VII.

The Bayon was expanded and modified in at least three phases. Thus the central shrine began with a cruciform plan but was later given its unusual circular layout with an addition of radiating shrines. The outer enclosing wall contains eight cruciform entrance towers and is covered in reliefs depicting battle scenes and daily activities. The third level contains towers embellished with huge stone heads. The original dedicatory statue of the Buddha

The reliefs carved on the walls of the Bayon temple at Angkor reflect life there in the early 13th century. Here we see an oxcart like those still used in the area, followed by a family with their livestock. (Charles Higham)

That would have been housed in the main gilded chapel was smashed as a later religious reaction and cast into the deep shaft that underlies the central shrine. The scenes on the outer walls include battles on land and water, feasting, life in a rich person’s house, hunting, playing of games, selling in the market, cooking, and building a palace. Military victories dominate many of the reliefs.

It is hard today to conceive of the monument’s original brilliance; it was described by ZHOU daguan as the golden tower. A contemporary inscription states that Queen Jayarajadevi, wife of Jayavarman VII, donated 100 banners of Chinese fabric to the god of Madhyadri, the Bayon.

Be A be was a group of craft specialists who, during the period of the yamato state in Japan, paid goods and services to the court. Such specialists are recorded in the Japanese history known as the NIHONGI, for example, as being established after the arrival of Korean artisans with specialist skills in weaving, writing, and the manufacture of iron goods. It is possible that the idea of tribute-producing specialists originated in Korea as well. An inscription on an iron sword from Okadayama employed the term be, suggesting that such occupational groups were established by the fifth century C. E. Their importance grew in tandem with the new demands placed on society as the Yamato state increased in complexity, highlighting the need for specialists in irrigation technology, weaving, and the provision of iron items required in war and agriculture.

Bedsa Bedsa, located in the western Deccan of India, is a notable example of an early rock-cut monastery. The inscriptions from this site date it to the middle of the first century b. c.e. There is a sanctuary of apsidal plan, and the front verandah was embellished with four decorated columns and a doorway giving access to the interior. The capitals of the columns were finely carved with sculptures of horses, elephants, and bulls and riders. Further columns are found in the interior, but these are plain except for the representations of pots at the top and bottom. Later in the monastery’s history, with the spread of MAHAYANA BUDDHISM, the walls were decorated with images of bodhisattvas.

See also han dynasty; sassanian empire.

Beikthano Beikthano (City of Vishnu) is a walled city in the valley of the Yin River, a tributary of the Irrawaddy River, in the dry zone of central Myanmar (Burma). Janice Stargardt has suggested, on the basis of a layer of ceramics predating the early citadel walls, that the site originated as a late prehistoric village that grew rapidly into an urban form, perhaps through irrigated rice cultivation. It was occupied from at least the first or second century b. c.e. and continued to be a major center of the PYU CIVILIZATION for a thousand years. Curiously, few inscriptions or other written documents of any sort have survived, but it is known that the Pyu people spoke a Tibeto-Burman language and in all probability emerged locally in central Myanmar (Burma) from late prehistoric Iron Age ancestors. A small clay stud recovered during excavations by U Aung Thaw in 1959 to 1963 bore a brief set of written characters in the PALI language and BRAHMI script stylistically dated to the second century c. e. The text reads, Samgha siri, probably a person’s name. Oral tradition has it that the city was founded by a princess Panhtwar in about 400 b. c.e. and that it finally succumbed to an attack by King Duttabaung of SRi ksetra.

ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS

The city covers an area of 881 hectares (2,203 acres), demarcated on all but the western side by a massive brick wall in places 2.5-meters (8.25 ft.) thick. The bricks were liberally tempered with rice husks, indicating extensive rice cultivation in the surrounding area. These walls are punctured by 12 main gateways, in which the iron sockets and charred wooden pieces of the original doors survive. A canal issuing from the Sadoun River to the east carried water to the city. One branch of the canal entered the walled area and fed a large reservoir that made up the western edge of the city, while other branches directed water into the moats outside the walls. Excavations in 1959-63 concentrated on 25 sites in the city and immediately beyond its walls. The excavators recorded more than 100 brick structures in association with this site, and excavations revealed different plans that developed over 10 centuries. The city also had a citadel or royal palace near the center that was probably extended on several occasions and could have incorporated another royal palace. Unlike in other Pyu cities, however, no names of kings have survived.

Two early brick structures have furnished radiocarbon dates that suggest that the first monumental architecture dates in the period 200 b. c.e. to 200 c. e. The surviving structures belonging to this phase include two substantial brick buildings of rectangular plan, incorporating large wooden posts within. One contained 40 urn burials in the foundation layer; the mortuary vessels were of outstanding quality and held cremated human remains but no grave goods. A second such early building included 13 urn burials. These buildings are interpreted by Janice Stargardt of Cambridge University as mortuary chapels for highly ranked ancestors, built before the adoption of BUDDHISM and thus representing a magnification of prehistoric mortuary traditions involving a form of ancestor worship. Buddhism was adopted at Beikthano by at least by the mid-fourth century C. E. One of the many brick foundations took the form of a monastery building with eight individual cells for monks, following an Indian pattern. This building is also associated with a large cylindrical brick stupa associated with an outer circular pathway, the fill of which incorporated exotic stone beads. Structures in the citadel itself included what may have been a royal throne room and a thickly walled building for storing valuable or ritual objects. There are also many low mounds forming lines parallel with and beyond the outer walls. The excavation of one of these revealed a set of brick-lined vaults around a central cell, measuring about six by eight meters (20 by 26 ft.). The vaults contained cremation urns for receiving human ashes.

IRRIGATION AT BEIKTHANO

Beikthano is located in the dry interior zone of Myanmar (Burma), which receives an average of 870 millimeters (35 in.) of rainfall per annum. This is insufficient alone to sustain rice cultivation. The examination of air photographs, however, has revealed how the local rivers were diverted into canals that fed the city reservoirs, before the water was channeled into extensive irrigated rice fields to the west of the city It is also possible that at least some of the area enclosed by the perimeter walls could have been cultivated with the benefit of irrigation water.

FOREIGN CONTACTS

The material culture of Beikthano reveals an active interest in exchange. A corpus of silver coins has been assembled. They include specimens with the mother goddess, or srivatsa, motif associated with the Sun and the Moon. Bronzes include a small casting of a lion and bells recalling those of late prehistoric Thailand. Smiths made iron nails, clearly used in the construction of wooden buildings, knives, and arrowheads. There are exotic hard stone beads of agate, crystal, jasper, amethyst, and carnelian, and some of the pottery vessels found within the central citadel were probably imported from india. There was also a vigorous local industry for ceramics, which produced large and technically outstanding mortuary vessels in the form of drums. Sandstone molds have been recovered, indicating the casting of ornaments, and the presence of clay spindle whorls attests to a weaving industry.

Further reading: Aung Thaw. Report on the Excavations at Beikthano. Rangoon: Government of the Union of Myanmar, 1968; -. Historical Sites in Burma. Ran

Goon: Sarpay Beikman Press, 1972.

Beng Mealea In Cambodia, Beng Mealea, “lotus pool,” is one of the most enigmatic of all Angkorian centers. it is located about 40 kilometers (24 mi.) east of angkor and stylistically belongs to the middle of the 12th century C. E. However, no inscriptions have been found there, and nothing is known of its founder, its name, or its relationship to the rulers at Angkor itself. Its obvious wealth might be related to its location at the head of a canal linking the kulen hills with the great lake, a possible route for sandstone to reach Angkor. The temple lies within a moated enclosure almost one kilometer square, linked with a baray to the east. It includes a central sanctuary set within three galleries and incorporating cruciform structures as at angkor wat. A long causeway on the eastern side with a balustrade in the form of a naga, or snake, linked the temple with the baray. While there are no reliefs at this site, the temples are decorated with scenes drawn mainly from Hindu epics that feature Vishnu and siva.

Besnagar Besnagar, formerly known as Vidisanagara, is located between the Betwa and Bes Rivers, in India. It is particularly notable in the history of Indian archaeology, because it was here in the 1840s that sir Alexander Cunningham undertook a pioneering study of the monuments and their associated material culture, later published in the monograph The Bhilsa Topes. Further investigations took place in 1910, when several mounds were opened by H. H. Lake, and more intensive excavations took place in 1913 by D. R. Bhandarkar.

The city covers an area of about 240 hectares (600 acres) and was probably the capital of the MAHAJANAPADA (state) of Avanti. The exposed western side is defended by a rampart and moat, the rampart having been constructed in the second century b. c.e. Although a site with a long period of occupation, it is best known for a stone pillar, inscribed by heliodoros, son of Diya, the Greek ambassador at the court of a local ruler, Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, on behalf of Antialcidas, king of taxila in modern Pakistan, during the late second century b. c.e. This column supported a statue of Garuda and was erected by Heliodoros. It is one of a row of eight associated with a religious shrine, the second to be built on this location. The text of the inscription reads: “This Garuda-pillar of Vasudeva, the god of gods, was constructed here by Heliodoros, the Bhagavata, son of Diya, of Taxila, the Greek ambassador who came from the Great King Antial-cidas to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior, prospering in his fourteenth year. These three steps lead to immortality, when correctly followed, lead to heaven: control, generosity, and attention” (translated by R. Salomon, 1998).

The stump of a second inscribed column included a text recording the erection of a column with an image of GARUDA by Bhagavata, dedicated to the god Vasudeva in the 12th year since the consecration of Maharaja Bhaga-vata. Bhagavata is recorded in surviving texts as the penultimate king of the sunga dynasty, who ruled in the early first century B. C.E.

Bhandarkar’s excavations produced a wide range of artifacts, including coins and sealings, figurines, wheels from toy carts, iron sickles, knives and nails, and cowry shells. Many punch-marked copper coins were recovered; the symbols included human figures, rivers with fish, a horse, elephants, and tortoises.

Bezeklik Bezeklik, “the place with paintings,” was discovered during a German expedition to the turpan basin (Xinjiang province, China) in 1904 to 1905. Led by Albert van der Coq and Albert Grunwedel, the expedition explored a series of Buddhist temples cut into the rock. The two removed many of these and dispatched them to Berlin.

Bhadraniketana See sdok kak thom.

Bhagavad Gita Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord) is a sacred Sanskrit text that comprises the sixth book of the Hindu epic MAHABHARATA (500 B. C.E.-400 C. E.). The theme is a moral one, posed by the hero Arjuna when he is preparing for a battle that may lead to the deaths of his relatives. His charioteer is the god Krishna, and the issues covered in conversation between the two center on the relations between human and god and the nature of the deity

Bhagwanpura Bhagwanpura is a site of the late indus VALLEY CIVILIZATION, (early second millennium B. C.E.), in the now-dry valley of the sarasvati river in northwestern India. Excavations have uncovered evidence for two periods of occupation in a cultural buildup 2.7 meters (9 ft.) thick. The earlier saw the construction of large, raised mud-brick platforms, the substructures of houses designed to alleviate possible flood damage. However, there is evidence of at least one major episode of flooding. The pottery and associated material culture belong to the late phase of the civilization. A seal with the Indus script, many terra-cotta figurines, and jewelry of car-nelian and faience were discovered. The second phase saw a continuation of some Indus Valley traits together with PAINTED GREY WARE.

Bhaja The cave-temples at Bhaja in Maharashtra state, India, are probably the earliest such rock monasteries in India. Dating to the late second century B. C.E., they incorporate some fine relief panels depicting Surya, the Hindu sun god, and Indra. The entrance to the most notable sanctuary cave takes the form of a large arch that shows clearly wooden prototypes in the design of its beams and balustrades. The monasteries are badly damaged, but in one a relief of Indra in his chariot, accompanied by a woman holding a fly whisk and parasol is preserved. The monks’ cells were also embellished with fine reliefs.

Bharhut Bharhut is a major Buddhist center located in the state of Madhya Pradesh in India. The site was strategically placed between ujjain to the south and patalipu-

TRA to the east and provided easy access to kosambi. Now largely in ruins, the site dates to the third century B. C.E., when the original brick stupa was probably constructed under King asoka. The stupa is of great architectural importance given its date and style, the hemispherical form of which recalls the original purpose of the stupa as a burial mound.

Bharhut first drew the attention of scholars in 1873, after sir Alexander Cunningham had examined the stupa and identified the remains of a town, both published in the monograph The Stupa of Bharhut. The Bharhut style of sculpture, with narrative reliefs ornamenting temple structures, was widespread in northern India. The reliefs form a major corpus of material dating to the Sunga dynasty (185-73 B. C.E.). As at sanchi, the favored motifs incorporated yakshas and yakshis, male and female fertility deities probably of great antiquity, which were adopted into early Buddhist art. The surviving stone railings also incorporate reliefs illustrating JATAKA TALES describing the previous lives of the Buddha and events in his life. The Buddha is not depicted but represented symbolically as a parasol, a wheel, or an empty throne. The brief inscriptions describe the events illustrated and thus provide a vital contribution to an understanding of Buddhist iconography Some of the jataka stories differ from those current in texts written in the PALI language, suggesting that there were once several different versions. one of the most useful aspects of the decoration is the faithful manner in which it depicts scenes taken from life at the time. Thus the wooden houses had two or three stories and incorporated elegant balustrades. The four gateways were, according to an inscription, constructed during the reign of King Dhan-abhuti in the early first century b. c.e.