LEGIONARIES

The origins of a true ‘Roman’ army seem to lie in the 6th century BC when Servius Tullius reorganized the federation of Etruscans, Romans, and Latins into a unified body whose troop types were classified by wealth rather than, as previously, by tribal origins. He divided the population into five property classes, the richest ‘first class’ being armed in the fashion of the Greek hoplite. This equipment consisted of a bronze helmet, cuirass, and greaves, a sword, a spear, and the traditional large, round hoplite ‘Argive’ shield. The first battle line of the field army was made up of 40 hundred-man ‘centuries’ of these troops, which fought in a Greek phalanx formation. The ‘second class’ troops were equipped like the first, except that they had no cuirass and used the native Latin. Kcutum instead of the Argive. shield; ten centuries of these troops were positioned behind the first class phalanx. Behind these were ten ‘third class’ centuries armed like the second class except that they lacked greaves. The ‘fourth class’ had neither helmet nor sword, but in addition to scutum and spear carried a light throwing javelin. The poorest, or ‘fifth class’, of which there were 15 centuries, were equipped as slingcrs. This army also had 18 centuries of cavalry recruited from the wealthiest families.

The second great change to Roman army organisation (Kcured in the 4th century BC and is sometimes attributed to the dictator-hero Camillas. By this time the Argive shield-equipped phalanx had disappeared and the legion was universally equipped with the Latin scutum. The legion (/eg/o. which originally meant ‘levy’) was split into three lines and had a strength of about 5.(X)() men. Front rank skirmishers called velites carried light javelins. The first two battle lines, the hasuiti and principes, were probably equipped with the now famous pilum. The third line consisted of three categories of spearmen - triarii, rorarii, and accensi - which, if we add the hastati and principes. may reflect the original five classes of the Servian army. We do not know if the armour worn in this period was still based on the original five classes, though it is likely that the rorarii and accensi (the latter’s name literally meaning ‘reserves’) were still the most poorly equipped. The most common body armour was probably a round or square bronze breast plate, and the most popular helmets were probably debased Italian versions of the Greek ‘Attic’ and ‘Corinthian’ helmets, or the native Italian ‘pot’ helmets. The typical sword would be the leaf-bladed Greek hoplite type, or the curve-bladed kopis (possibly of Italian origin).

By the 2nd century BC the ‘post-Camillan’ legion was further refined. It now numbered some 4,2(K) men with the elimination of the accensi and rorarii. About 40 of

Above: Forerunner to the Roman heavy infantry legionary, a first class warrior of the ‘Etruseo-Servian‘ Roman field army of the 5th century BC. essentially equipped in the fashion of a Greek hoplite of the period. Eighty lf)0-man ‘centuries' of these troops formed the front line of the army, fighting in the phalanx formation with a ninc-fix)t spear. The Greek-type sword shown here was a secondary weapon for u. se if the spear was broken. The helmet is the cla. ssic Greek ‘Corinthian' model, though many other et)ntemporary Greek and Latin styles were worn. The 'muscle' cuirass was the longest-used piece of 'Roman' armour. in use through KKX) years of Latin history. Only the first class troops carried the Argive shield, the remaining classes carrying the Latin vcm/h/h.

Below; Dclail of Ihc Corimhiun helmel. When not in action the helmet could he worn on top of the head. This fashion inspired the 'Italo-Corinthian' helmet, similar in appearance hut designed to worn only in this fashion.

The light. skirmishers were attached to each maniple (‘handful’) of hastati, principes, and Iriarii. The maniples of the two former divisions numbered about 160 men each, armed with pita, while a maniple of iriarii numbered only about 60. The. se, the oldest (and thus perhaps best equipped) men, were armed like their predecessors with a nine foot spear instead of the shorter pilum, and could form a formidable defensive ‘pike’ formation as a last resort if the hastati and principes were forced to retire. Together, these three maniples of six centuries formed a cohort, ten of which comprised the legion. In addition there were 320 cavalry divided equally into ten units called turmae.

Military operations against new foes brought changes to the legionaries’ equipment during the 2nd century. The Greek or Italian-type swords were replaced by the famous short, cut-and-thrust sword from Spain, the gladius hispanicus (which probably first came into contact with the Romans during the 1st Punic War). The Roman pugio or dagger had a similar Spanish origin. The most popular helmet by this date was the Celtic ‘Montefortino’ type, great numbers of which may have been captured at Telamon and other Roman victories over the Celts. Likewise, Celtic shirts of ring mail found their way into the hands of the wealthier legionaries, and, like the Montefortino helmets, were probably being manufactured by the Romans themselves by this time. The typical body armour was a bronze chest plate, some nine inches square. Wealthier legionaries could provide themselves with better armour, such as Gallic mail or scale armour. In the case of officers, molded bronze ‘muscle’ cuirasses would have seen use. Hastati, principes and triarii all wore at least one greave (on the leading, left leg). All three divisions carried the scutton, of hide-covered laminated wood about two Roman feet wide by four feet high. The velites carried a round shield three feet in diameter; their only armour was a helmet, sometimes draped with an animal pelt. In addition to up to seven light javelins, they also carried the sword.

At the end of the 2nd century BC Marius reformed the legion, eliminating the velites and iriarii and equipping all legionaries with the pilum, the classic long-shanked offensive throwing spear which characterised the legionary for perhaps 350 years. Six centuries each of approximately 80 men formed each cohort, ten of which again comprised a legion, now numbering some 4,8(K) infantry. This was essentially the legion of Julius Caesar and the early Empire, with one major exception. Possibly in Caesar’s time (mid-1st century BC). but certainly by the mid-lst century AD, the first cohort of the legion began to be made up of five double-strength centuries instead of the usual six regular centuries. The organic cavalry in the legion was reduced to about 120 men; so at full strength the legion would number nearly 6,000 men.

The troops who could not afford their own armour were now issued it by the state (to be deducted from their pay, of course); and cheap, obviously mass-produced

Below right: The kopis was an extremely popular sword in the Mediterranean world from the 6lh to 3rd centuries BC; some attribute its origin to Spain, though the earliest examples have been found in Italy.

Right: Interior of (he Argive shield commonly used in both Greece and Italy; such a shield would weigh between 5 and 6kg. depending on whether it was faced in hide or bronze. The interior rim could be rested on the shoulder while in the phalanx or on the march, alleviating some of its weight.

Helmets begin appearing in this period. Mail or possibly scale shirt body defences were worn by all legionaries by this time. The Montefortino helmet was still the most common type, though Italian versions of Greek Attic and Corinthian helmets were also in u. se. Captured Gallic helmets of newer types, like the bron/e ‘Coolus’ and iron ‘Port’ and ‘Agen’ types, were probably worn by legionaries in the mid-lst century BC, and as these areas fell under Roman control‘Romanised’ versions of these practical helmets began to be manufactured for the army.

Above & left: Light infantry skirmisher of the Republican Roman army, based on the description by Polybius. Prior to the Marian-era reforms which abolished the various troop classes in the legion. 40 of these velites were attached to each maniple; they came from the lower class of citi/.ens who could not afford the armour and equipment of the higher classes. His primary weapons are light throwing javelins, as many as seven sometimes being carried. By Polybius' time the famous j(ladius hispanicus would have been in common use. though this soldier still carries an old Greck-stylc sword. His shield was round, and three feet in diameter, made of wood or wicker and covered with hide. Here we show a spindle boss based on the bosses of contemporary xcum and round shields on the Acmilius Paullus monument at Delphi.

Opposite: Polybius stated that the velites sometimes wore pieces of animal skin on their helmets so that their centurions could Judge from a distance how well they fought. This has been widely interpreted as wearing complete animal pells, usually wolf skins as portrayed here, though this may not necessarily be the case. The wearing of animal pelts over the helmets by standard bearers during the Principatc could, however, be a continuation of a tradition begun by the velites of the Republic.

A hiisratus or princeps of the Republican army based on the description of Polybius. The typical brxly armour was a square pectoral plate, though richer legionaries might have a Celtic mail shirt or scale armour. A single greave would also be worn on the leading leg. To his side arc two pita, primarily missile weapons with iron shanks meant to bend on impact, preventing their re-use by the enemy. No actual examples of the pectoral 'heart plate’ have been found, though round versions were excavated at Numantia. the site of a siege at which Polybius was present. The helmet worn here is an Italian form of the Greek 'Attic' popular throughout Rome's history, in later periods associated with the muscle cuirass as the dress of high-ranking officers. Polybius stales that the Roman helmets of his lime were decorated with black and purple feathers, mentioning nothing about the horsehair crests so commonly depicted on legionaries of this period by mixlem artists.

Above; Reconsiruclion of a ¦Montefortino B' helmet dating from the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC. Though it has an applied rather than integral crest knob, it was finely made; its cabled border and engraved crest knob probably indicate private ownership. The Montefortino helmet seems to be the most prevalent type of the Republican period and. like ring mail, was Celtic in origin.

I. cft: A legionary of the Punic Wars. A more affluent haslaius or princeps might wear a mail shirt instead of a pectoral plate, as depicted here. Ring mail clearly seems to have been a Celtic invention dating to at lea. st as early as 300 BC. Both the Celts and Romans wore mail shirts cut in imitation of the Greek linen cuirass with its distinctive shoulder doublings.

Polybius described the sctiium as four feet high, made of two layers of wood glued together, and as thick as a man's palm. It was first covered with canvas and then with calf skin, and was reinforced at top and bottom with iron. This reconstruction is ba. scd on this description and an original specimen found in Egypt, and weighs approximately 10kg. There is no evidence to indicate that the shields of this period were decorated; Polybius makes no mention of decoration, despite his detailed description of legionary equipment down to the colour of their plumes. This seems to be supported by sculptural evidence; e. g. the Aemilius Paullus monument shows sculpted decoration on the Macedonian shields to depict their painted design, while the Roman scuta are left plain. Note the fsladius hispankus. adopted by the beginning of the 2nd century BC.

With the reforms of Marius at the beginning of the 1st century BC the class system was abolished and the legions were opened to all citizens. Those who could not afford armour were issued it by the state. The basic appearance of the ‘typical’ legionary changed little in 250 years with mail shirt. Montefortino helmet. pilum. short sword and sciilum. though there were some changes by the last century BC. This figure could represent a legionary of Marius. Julius Caesar or Augustus. The three-feather plume described by Polybius has now been replaced by horsehair, red being a colour mentioned in contemporary Roman texts and depicted on murals c. g. that of the soldier in the Pompeiian magistrate's court scene. By the late 1st century BC the austere, unadorned saiiiim was clearly decorated, as attested by sculptural evidence. The necessity of unit identification by shield motif may have been brought about by Romans fighting Romans during the recurrent civil wars of this period.