Also called Lower Moesia, and composed of the eastern sections of Moesia. It defended Thrace, the vital area of the Bosporus and the imperial interests at the intersection of the Danube and the Black Sea. Here migrations were especially felt, for many of the moving peoples passed along the Black Sea and the Crimea before entering the Roman Empire on this coast.
For this reason Moesia Inferior was first to feel the horrors of the Gothic invasions of the third century c. E. King KNIVA and his Goths in 249 embarked upon a systematic operation of conquest. Moesia Inferior was ruined despite the best efforts of its governor, the future Emperor trebonianus gallus and the Emperor DECIUS. In 251, Decius was crushed and killed at Abrittus, just south of the Danube, and the province was once more laid waste. As part of Emperor aurelian’s plans for resettling the inhabitants of Roman Dacia in 270, slices of Moesia and Thrace were used to establish Dacia Mediter-ranea, with its capital at Serdica.
Moesia Inferior was far less Romanized than any other Danubian province, and the few achievements in civilization were culturally Greek. Trajan designed new cities along the Greek line, Nicopolis and Marcianopolis, ensuring that Moesia Inferior would be one of the starting points for the empire’s Hellenic East. See also PROVINCES.
Moguntiacum (Mainz) A strategic site near the confluence of the Rhine and Main rivers. In the early first century c. E., in preparation for an invasion of Germany, Emperor Augustus ordered a fortress to be constructed here large enough to accommodate two entire legions. Once constructed, Moguntiacum became the perennial launching point of all major operations into Germanic territory from Roman-occupied Germany.
As was true with all of the legionary camps founded in the region, a community soon sprang up near the camp at Moguntiacum. The Rhine provided an excellent location, so the town was based between the fortress and the river. By the end of the first century c. E., the settlement had not only become a city but was also declared the capital of Germania Superior—since 19 c. E. protected by two legions, the XIV and XVI Gemina.
The rebellion of civilis in 69-70 c. E. ravaged most of Germania, and the capture of Moguntiacum was seen by the rebel leader as essential to the collapse of Roman authority in the region. Fortunately for Rome, the city was spared any long-term damage from the siege of several tribes. Petilius Cerealis embarked upon his pacification of Germania Superior from there. To provide better protection in the event of another uprising, the wooden defenses were replaced by stone.
In 89, the attempted rebellion of Saturninus against Emperor Domitian brought a change in the size of the garrison. The XIV Gemina Legion was transferred to Pan-nonia and the Danube. Never again would two legions be stationed there on a permanent basis, although the bridges over the Rhine at Moguntiacum were still used by numerous campaigning legions, most notably those of the ru l e r s Caracalla and Severus Alexander. The latter emperor was murdered by his own troops near Moguntiacum in 235.
Twenty-five years later the rampant instability of the frontier forced the abandonment of the fortress. Instead of the citizens relying on the legionary citadel, the city itself was fortified. While this should have ensured the continued prosperity of Moguntiacum in the Dark Ages, the capital never achieved the wealth or prestige of other provincial centers and metropolises, especially neighboring Cologne. Full municipal status (municipium) did not come until the fourth century Excavations have uncovered the remains of aqueducts, an immense amphitheater and a monument to either Drusus or Domitian.
Moneta Name given to the goddess Juno as patron deity of finances.
M onop hysi tism (M onop hysism) A heresy of the fifth and sixth centuries c. e. teaching that there was but one nature in the Person of Christ, a divine one. It was opposed to the orthodox doctrine established at the Council of Chalcedon (451) in which the doctrine of two natures in the One Person of Christ was upheld. Stemming in part from a reaction to Nestorianism, which p reached two separate natures, Monophysitism was developed in the writings of the monk Eutyches (d. 454), who was condemned by the synod at Constantinople. Condemned at the second Council of Constantinople (553), the Monophysites continued to find support in Syria, Armenia, and especially among Coptic Christians in Egypt. Several attempts were made to effect a reconciliation, such as the effo rts of Emperors Zeno (r. 474-491) and Justinian I (r. 527-565), but both the Monophysites and orthodox remained firm. Any hopes of a reunion were ended with the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt.
Mons Aurasius Mountain range cutting across part of the province of AFRICA and into numidia. Several important sites were included in Mons Aurasius: Zama, in Africa; Theveste (also Thevesta), the headquarters of the
III Augusta Legion; and the high fortress of the Numidian chief Tacfarinas.
Montanism Heresy that originated in the latter half of the second century c. E. in the region of Phrygia (in Asia Minor). An apocalyptic and semimystical movement, it was started by a prophet from Phrygia named Montanus. He believed that a holy Jerusalem was soon going to descend upon the Phrygian village of Pepuza and, with the help of two disciples, Prisca and Maximilla, he preached intense asceticism, personal purity, fasting, and the desire to suffer martyrdom. Montanists, as the members of the movement were called, accepted the idea that such a lifestyle was essential to prepare for the impending return of Christ and because sins after birth could not be forgiven. While opposed by many bishops in Asia Minor, Montanism spread throughout the region, and by the third century the movement had become organized into a virtual church. It achieved its greatest success in 207 with the conversion of Tertullian to their cause. The leadership was ultimately excommunicated and the movement died out in the third century in most of the Roman Empire. It lingered in Phrygia for several centuries before finally disappearing.
Montanus, Votienus (d. 25 c. e.) Distinguished member of Roman society in the reign of Tiberius (14-37 c. e.) Montanus was accused of slandering the emperor, the charges laid out in detail by a soldier named Aemilius. Tiberius was appalled that he should be so vilified, promising to take steps to clear his reputation. However, Montanus was condemned, one of many who would face death or banishment until Tiberius felt appeased.
Moors A seminomadic people living throughout much of North Africa but centered in Mauretania. The Moors (from the Latin maurus) were of Arabian-Berber descent. By the second century B. C.E., the tribes had organized themselves into a series of small kingdoms in Mauretania and thus were considered an important element in Rome’s organization of the region into a province. Relations between the Romans and the Moors varied from excellent to intensely hostile. Some Moors served in the Roman army, while others were raiders, terrorizing Africa and Spain.
Julius Caesar used the chieftain Bogud as commander of the excellent Moorish light cavalry during several of his campaigns. The Moors proved especially helpful at MUN DA in 435 b. c.e. , when Bogud led the charges that swept Gnaeus Pompey’s cavalry from the field and then outflanked his legions. During the reign of Trajan, the Moorish leader Lusius Quietus first headed a native contingent and then became a very reliable lieutenant of the e m p ero r. He captured both Nisibis and Edessa during the Parthian War, suppressed the revolt of the Jews in
Mesopotamia and was given the governorship of Judaea in 117 C. E. Moorish cavalry served as important auxil-i a ry formations in the armies of Rome for the next 300 years. There was even a light-horse regiment in the forces of Maxentius at the battle of the milvian brid ge in 312.
Unfortunately, not all dealings with the Moors were so successful. Moorish tribes held sizable domains within Mauretania, and many opposed the intense Romanization so characteristic of the occupation of Africa. When Mauretania became an actual province in 400 C. E., several years of fighting were necessary to secure pacification. Even then, battles could erupt at any time, necessitating the erection of fortifications along the southern boundaries of many Roman colonies. From Mauretania Tingi-tana, closely associated with hispania Baetica and just across from Gibraltar, the Moors proved willing to expand their unrest to Spain as well.
Around 180 they crossed over into Baetica, ravaging much of the province and besieging the city of Singilia Barba. The governors of Hispania Tarraconensis and Mauretania Tingitana had to conduct unified operations to rid the normally peaceful Baetica of the marauders. The Moors withdrew but would be back in force some 600 years later. Never totally defeated, they continued their resistance to Rome throughout the third and fourth centuries C. E., until they became the problem of Geiseric and the vandals in the fifth century. Emperor Macrinus (217-18 C. E.) was of Moorish descent.
Mucianus, Gaius Licinius (fl. first century c. e.) Consul suffectus in 64 or 67, 70, and 72 c. e., governor of Syria and chief lieutenant in the cause of Vespasian during the Civil War of 69 c. e.
Mucianus was reported by the historian Tacitus to be a mixture of good and bad; he could be arrogant and selfindulgent but ever hardworking, even devoted to his duties. A wild private life, however, made his position in Rome difficult. To avoid the displeasure of Emperor Claudius, he retired to Asia in a partially self-imposed exile. Nero, who liked rogues, later reinstated Mucianus to imperial favor, granting him promotions and, finally, the Syrian governorship. in this position he aided vespasian and his son Titus in their subjugation of the Jew ish REBELLION (c. 66-69), commanding four legions: IV Scythia, VI Ferrata, XII Fulminata, and III Gallica.
Both Mucianus and Vespasian swore their oaths to Galba. When he was assassinated in January 69, they promised obedience to his successor, Otho. However, Vitellius used his German legions to crush Otho, and the foul reputation of this new emperor created a volatile situation in the East and on the Danube frontier. A rival candidate had to be found. Mucianus was a likely candidate to wear the purple, but, as Tacitus wrote, he was a man more likely to make an emperor than to be one. Joined by the prefect of Egypt, Tiberius Julius Alexander,
Mucianus threw his support behind Vespasian. Over half of the Roman Empire declared for Vespasian, including the legions on the Danube, who took matters into their own hands and marched on Italy.
Vespasian, meanwhile, appointed Mucianus as his main general, instructing him to set out for Rome, hoping to pick up support from other legions. The Flavians did not yet know that the Danube had risen against Vitel-lius, thanks to the legate Antonius Primus. Thus, when Mucianus and his army arrived in the Balkans, they found the provinces quite deserted of troops. A crisis soon developed, for the Dacians, thinking the time perfect for attack, swept across the Danube, only to find an unexpected Roman army marching toward them. The incursion was repelled, and Mucianus continued his advance on Italy
Crossing the Alps, he learned that the general Anto-nius Primus had won the second battle of bedriacum in October, defeating the army of Vitellius. Although Mucianus proceeded to Rome as quickly as possible, he could not arrive there until January 70, nearly two weeks after the death of Vitellius on December 20. Mucianus was greeted by the Romans with relief, because Antonius had allowed his men considerable liberties. Antonius and his associates were curbed, order returning under Mucianus’s firm hand. He was the master of Rome for the next six months, administering the government as Vespasian’s representative, sending troops to crush the uprising of Civilis in Germania and preparing the Romans for a return to stable imperial rule under Vespasian and the Flavians. The new emperor did not forget the work accomplished by Mucianus. He was given triumphal honors as well as consulships. Dio noted that Mucianus was a major influence in the expulsion from Rome of the philosophers, especially of the Stoics. He also authored a book of curiosities, used by Pliny the Elder.
Muliebris, Temple of Fortuna Temple in Rome devoted to the goddess fortuna. Here, only women were permitted to worship. Men offered their prayers at the Temple of virilis.
M unda Town in southern Spain that was site of the last battle fought in the great Roman Civil War (49-45 b. c.e.) . The battle ended the hopes of the Pompeians and assured the mastery of JULIUS caesar over the Roman world. After crushing the forces of Scipio and King Juba of Numidia at Thapsus in Febru a ry 46, Caesar re t u rned to Rome to establish his political base for what he knew would be the last campaign against the Pompeians, in Spain.
In December of 46, the dictator sailed from Italy to Spain, returning to the legions that he had left in the region following his successful ilerda campaign in 49. At his disposal were around 40,000 soldiers. Against him were arrayed the remaining legions still faithful to the memory of pompey the great. They numbered some
55,000 men under the command of Pompey’s sons, Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey, and Caesar’s former lieutenant in the Gallic Wars, Titus labienus.
From January to March 45, Caesar repeated his skillful maneuverings of Ilerda, using long marches, countermarches and small engagements to bring Gnaeus to bear. The Pompeian generals, fearing the worst in a pitched battle with Caesar’s legions, refused to accept his terms for a confrontation. By March, however, most of Spain had fallen to Caesar, who was slowly driving Gnaeus farther south. Finally, near the town of Munda, the Pompeians took up an excellent position on a hill, dressed their lines and waited for Caesar’s response. Gnaeus doubted that any fighting would take place. Caesar had a different view Knowing that his legions would counter any tactical advantage of the enemy, he saw the time to be right for the decisive engagement.
Placing his veteran legions, the III and V, on the left, and the superb X on his right, Caesar moved to the attack. So began the battle of Munda on March 17, 45 b. c.e. The Pompeian cavalry was driven from the field, while Caesar’s cohorts pushed up the slope to encounter their less gifted counterparts. What Caesar deemed a limited edge proved to be greater than anticipated, and the fighting became a bitter and bloody struggle, one of the fiercest ever conducted by a general. For hours the contest raged, and Caesar had to rush into the center personally to prevent his forces from wavering. Only by the sheer prowess of the X Legion was victory secured. The legionaries collapsed the Pompeian left, and the Caesarean cavalry was unleashed once more. Despite Labi-enus’s attempts to repair the breach, the day was lost, the rout was on, and the hopeless slaughter of his men began in earnest. Labienus fell with 30,000 men. Caesar hunted down Gnaeus and put him to death. Sextus escaped to become a pirate king. Narrowly won, Munda was the final battle of the war, as well as Caesar’s last field command. He had suffered only 1,000 casualties, while winning Spain. Although poorly written, the best source for Munda is De Bello Hispaniensi, or The Spanish War, supposedly authored by Caesar.
Municipium Term used to denote a city with a certain type of legal standing within the Roman Empire. Municipium (pl. municipia) came to denote one of the stages by which a community could advance to full privileges as a colony of Rome. In the days of the early Republic all towns established by Roman colonists were called colo-niae civium Romanorum and enjoyed total protection under the laws of Rome, for the very land of the colony held the status of actual Roman soil. However, throughout Italy and eventually the provinces, there were a vast number of cities created by the so-called peregrini (foreigners) that had to be classified legally. To them was applied the title municipia civium Romanorum.
By Roman law these places were considered part of Rome but not entitled to the full benefits available to c ol o-niae. The cities of the Latin League had received the lUS LATH or Latin Rights, and so the municipia were given these in Italy under the lex Julia of 90 b. c.e. When the Roman empire was established under Augustus, this entire system was adapted to help classify all imperial domains. From the time of Augustus (27 b. c.e.-14 c. e.) to Caracalla and the Constitutio Antoniniana in 212 c. e., municipium meant that a city was honored with the ius Latii and could, if fortunate or worth y, by upgraded to a c o l o n i a.
The city elevated to a municipium enjoyed numerous benefits. There was the ius Latii, of course, but the inhabitants shared as well in imperial commerce, attention, and the protection of the legions. Initially, a continuation of local law and custom was tolerated, but under the empire certain changes were forced upon the cities with respect to the nature of the local administration. The East, with its system of the polis or highly organized city, needed only a few adjustments to make the municipia more responsive to the will of Rome. Western lands, long barbarian territories, were reshaped dramatically, and thus clung closely to the Roman method of self rule. Each municipium had its own constitution, council or senate, and administrative officials. The constitution began with the democratic aim of ensuring a voice for the people while creating competent councils and necessary boards. As was first true in the West, however, more and more power passed into the hand of the senators and magistrates, and finally solely into the realm of the appointed executives.
Throughout the first century c. e. the municipia were shaped into common form. The local senate was composed of around 100 members, the initial DECURIONES. They were aided by the highly influential duoviri or judges, quinquennales, the municipal censors, the QUAESTORS and the aediles. Each municipium became a microcosm of the Roman Imperial Government, following the pattern of reduced democracy and the transfer of real authority from the Senate to the bureaucracy By the second century c. e., all important duties were borne by the magistrates, chosen from the now hereditary and privileged class of the decuriones.
Even though any self-identity would be lost with the attainment of colonia rank, it remained the dream of every municipium to be blessed with that promotion. The prestige of being even a small part of Rome was as much as any city could want. The rigid separation began to crack during the second century and was ended altogether by Caracalla in 212.
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