Plant Species

Abies cilicica Ant. & Kotschy (Cilician fir, p 44)

Hepper Bible Plants, pp 27, 163; Nicholson and Shaw Materials, pp 348, 431; Meiggs Trees and Timber, fig 15b (shown as A. alba).

Acacia species (acacia, p 22)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 1, 364-72; Germer Flora, pp 89-92; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 63-4, 156; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 335, 476-7; Winlock, H E ‘Materials used at the embalming of King Tut-Ankh-Amun’, Metropolitan Museum Art Papers no 10, 1941, pp 5-18; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 298-304; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 2, pp 26-8, pl 38-41.

Allium sativum L. (garlic, p 55)

Darby Food, 1977, vol 2, pp 650-60; Germer Flora, pp 194-95; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 43-4, pl 8; Hepper Bible Plants, p 127; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 159-61; Manniche Herbal, pp 70-71; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 630-1; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication, pp 183-4, fig 44.

Anthemis pseudocotula Boiss. (mayweed, camomile, p 13)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 3, pp 240, 242; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 338, pl 52.

Apium graveolens L. (wild celery, p 14)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 2, p 163; Germer Flora, pp 137-8; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 8; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 110-11; Zohary,

M Flora Palaestina, vol 2, p 416, pl 600.

Balanites aegyptiaca L. (Egyptian plum, p 23)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 31, 34, 316; Germer Flora, pp 98-100; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 37-45; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 38, 55, 141; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 232-3; Manniche, Herbal, p 81; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 392-3, 442, 614; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 319-21.

Betula pendula Roth (silver birch, p 45)

Davis Flora of Turkey, vol 7, p 690; Germer Flora, p 18; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 78; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 336-7, 353.

Boswellia sacra Flueck. (frankincense, p 23)

Germer Flora, pp 108-11; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 136-7; Hepper, F N ‘Arabian and African frankincense trees’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1969, vol 55, pp 66-72; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 438-9.

Carthamus tinctorius L. (safflower, p 32)

Germer Flora, pp 173-5; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 37; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 171-2; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 232-5; Manniche, Herbal, p 83; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 279, 393-4; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication, pp 193-4.

Cedrus libani A Rich. (cedar of Lebanon, p 45)

Germer Flora, pp 5-6; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 71-5; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 26-7, 157; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 236-9; Meiggs Trees and Timber, pp 49-87; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 349.

Centaurea depressa Bieb. (cornflower, p 14)

Germer Flora, p 173; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 5-19; Manniche, Herbal, p 85. Cicer arietinum L. (chick-pea, p 55)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 685-7, fig 17.11; Germer Flora, pp 96-7; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 36; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 129-30; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 640-1; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication, pp 101-6, fig 30.

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf. (watermelon, p 56)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 717-18, fig 18.8; Germer Flora, pp 127-8; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 56; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 126-7; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 633-4; Zohary and Hopf, Domestication, p 181.

Cocculus hirsutus (J R & G Forst.) Diels (cocculus, p 56)

Germer Flora, pp 36-7; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 54-5; C. pendulus: Boulos,

Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 152, 154, 389; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 216, pl 317.

Commiphora gileadensis (L.) Chr. (balm of Gilead, p 24)

Germer Flora, pp 107-8; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 141, 145, 148-9; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 442.

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (myrrh, p 24)

Germer Flora, pp 106-7; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 137-8, 145, 152; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 175-85; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 439.

Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander, p 57)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 157-8; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 798-9; Germer Flora, pp 135-6; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 60; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 63, 132; Manniche, Herbal, p 94; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 643; Woenig Pflanzen, p 225; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, p 188.

Cupressus sempervirens L. (cypress, p 46)

Germer Flora, pp 9-10; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 76; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 27, 31, 105, 162; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 350-51; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt vol 1, p 64; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 19, pl 17.

Cyperuspapyrus L. (papyrus reed/sedge, p 33)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 375-6, 460; Germer Flora, pp 248-50; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 65; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 65, 68-9, 176, 178-81; Hepper, F N and Reynolds, T ‘Papyrus and the adhesive properties of its cell sap in relation to paper-making’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1967, vol 53, pp 156-7; Manniche, Herbal, pp 99-100; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 228-53; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt vol 1, pp 15-18; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 74-135, fig 62.

Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. (ebony, p 46)

Germer Flora, pp 97-8; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 71-72; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 30, 160-1, 164; Hepper, F N ‘On the transference of ancient plant names’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 1977, vol 109, pp 129-30; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 338-9.

Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf (halfa grass, p 33)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 268, 270, 449; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 289, pl 383; Germer Flora, pp 202; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 68; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 23, 175-6; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 255; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt vol 1, pp 177-85.

Ficus sycomorus L. (sycomore fig, p 58)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 745-8; Galil, J ‘An ancient technique for ripening sycomore fruits in East-Mediterranean countries’, Economic Botany, New York, 1968, vol 22, pp 178-90; Germer Flora, pp 25-27; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 55-6; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 14, 110; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 43-51; Manniche, Herbal, p 103-5; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 103-5; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 150-6, 235-6.

Fraxinus species (ash, p 47)

Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 16, pl 21; Germer Flora, p 152; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 76; Hepper Bible Plants, p 74; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 341.

Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori (grewia, p 59)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 90, 91; Germer Flora, p 19; Germer

Pflanzenmaterialien, p 54.

Hordeum vulgare L. (barley, p 59)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 479-89; Germer Flora, pp 207-10; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 26-33; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 14, 85-6; Manniche, Herbal, pp 107-8; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 512; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 54-64.

Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. (doum palm, p 59)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 104, 105, 429, 430; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 730-33, figs 18.16, 18.17; Germer Flora, pp 234-5; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 47-8; Hepper Bible Plants, p 117; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 620-21; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 273ff; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 317-18.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. (imperata halfa grass, p 33)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 325, 327, 455; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 318, pl 423; Germer Flora, pp 224-5; Hepper Bible Plants, p 175; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 255; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 482-6.

Juncus species (rush, p 34)

Boulos Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 94-102, 426-7; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 141, pl 187; Germer Flora, p 200; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 68-9; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 462-4.

Juniperus species (juniper, p 60)

Darby Food, vol 2, p 716; Germer Flora, pp 10-12; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 57-60; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 27, 59, 64, 155, 158, 163; Manniche, Herbal, pp 110-12; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 351, 433; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 20, pl 18.

Lawsonia inermis L. (henna, p 25)

Germer Flora, p 126; Hepper Bible Plants, p 143; Manniche, Herbal, p 114; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 279.

Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil, p 61)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 687-9; Germer Flora, pp 86-7; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 34—5; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 48, 127-8; Manniche, Herbal, p 115; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 638-9; Woenig Pflanzen, p 214; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 88-94.

Lilium candidum L. (white lily, p 25)

Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 44, pl 63; Germer Flora, pp 195-6; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 46-7; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 168-9.

Linum usitatissimum L. (flax, p 34)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 783-4; Germer Flora, pp 100-101; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 37; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 134, 166-7; Manniche, Herbal, p 116; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 396-7; Pfister, R ‘Les textiles du tombeau de Toutankhamon’, Revue des Arts Asiatiques, 1937, vol 11, pp 211-15; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 252-69; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 181-9; Zohary and Hopf Domestication,

Pp 119-26.

Liquidambar orientalis Mill. (Levant storax tree, p 47)

Germer Flora, p 65; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 77; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 141-2, 147; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 341-2.

Mandragora officinarum L. (mandrake, p 15)

Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 167, pl 278; Germer Flora, pp 169-71; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 11-12; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 82, 151; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 96-9; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 625-6.

Mimusops laurifolia (Forssk.) Friis (persea, p 15)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 736-40; Friis, I, Hepper, F N and Gasson, P ‘The botanical identity of the Mimusops in Ancient Egyptian tombs’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 1986, vol 72, pp 201-2; Germer Flora, p 148; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 11-18, pl 5, 6; Manniche, Herbal, pp 121-2; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 342, 625-6.

Moringaperegrina (Forssk.) Fiori (horseradish tree, p 25)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 238, 241; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 784; Germer Flora, pp 58-9; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 55, 150; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 394; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 340, pl 495.

Nigella sativa L. (black cumin, p 61)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 148-9; Darby Food, vol 2, p 807; Germer Flora, p 35; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 62; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 90, 133; Manniche Herbal, p 125; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 644-5; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, p 189.

Nymphaea caerulea Savigny (blue lotus waterlily, p 16).

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 152, 154; Germer Flora, pp 37-9; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 66, 71; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 632.

Nymphaea lotus L. (white lotus waterlily, p 16).

In addition to references for Nymphaea caerulea (above): Hepper Bible Plants, p 71; Manniche, Herbal, pp 126-9; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 217, pl 319.

Olea europaea L. (olive, p 16)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 718-21; Germer Flora, pp 150-51; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 5-8, 37; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 103-109; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 398-401; Woenig Pflanzen, p 227; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 137-43.

Papaver rhoeas L. (corn poppy, p 16)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 159, 160; Germer Flora, p 44; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 43, 47; Manniche, Herbal, p 130.

Phoenix dactylifera L. (date palm, p 62)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, 103-4, 428; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 722-30, pl 18.12-15; Germer Flora, pp 232-3; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 45; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 116-9; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 194-201; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 133-4; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 218ff; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 304-14; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 157-62.

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (common reed, p 35).

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 223-4, 446; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 270, pl 353; Germer Flora, pp 203-06; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 20-21; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 69, 70, 176, 181; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 255; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt vol 2, p 213.

Picris asplenioides L. (P radicata (Forssk.) Less.) (ox-tongue, p 16)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 280-1; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 419, pl 707; Germer Flora, p 184; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 11, 25.

Pinus species (pine, p 26)

Darby Food, vol 2, p 784; Germer Flora p 8; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 72; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 31-2, 105, 122, 163; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 433.

Pistacia species (mastic and Chios balm, p 26)

Germer Flora pp 111-13; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 33, 76, 122, 146-7; Mills, J S and White, R ‘The identity of the resins from the late Bronze Age shipwreck at Ulu Burun (Kas)’, Archaeometry, 1989, vol 31, pp 37-44; Stol, M On Trees, pp 1-24; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 434-6.

Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D A Webb (almond, p 62)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 780-82; Germer Flora p 58; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 38; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 121-2; Manniche, Herbal, pp 138-9; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 343-4; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 173-5.

Punica granatum L. (pomegranate, p 62)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 740-44, fig 18.23-4; Germer Flora pp 42-3; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 11-15; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 116-7; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 220-23; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 624-5; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 323-30; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, p 162.

Quercus aegilops L. (Valonia oak, p 48)

Germer Flora pp 20-21; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 74; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 33-4; Meiggs Trees and Timber, p 45; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 1, p 32, pl 31.

Ricinus communis L. (castor oil plant, p 26)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 2, pp 44, 45, 318; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 782-3; Germer Flora pp 103-4; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 42; Hepper Bible Plants, p 154; Manniche, Herbal, pp 142-3; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 391-2.

Rubia tinctorum L. (madder, p 35)

Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 235, pl 395; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 170-1; Manniche, Herbal, p 144; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 279, 305; Pfister, R ‘Les textiles du tombeau de Toutankhamon’, Revue des Arts Asiatiques, 1937, vol 11, p 209.

Salix mucronata Thunb. (syn. S. subserrata Willd.) (willow, p 17)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 1, pp 13, 15; Germer Flora pp 16-17; Germer

Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 8-18; Hepper Bible Plants, p 72; Nicholson and Shaw,

Materials, pp 344, 346.

Sesamum indicum L. (sesame, p 27)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 497-8; Germer Flora pp 171-2; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 41; Hepper Bible Plants, p 134; Manniche, Herbal, p 147; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 397-8; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 126-7.

Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. (tamarisk, p 48)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 2, 127, 128, 324; Germer Flora pp 124-5; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 77; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 53, 64; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 345; Zohary, Flora Palaestina, vol 2, p 359, pl 522.

Thymbra spicata L. (wild thyme, p 64)

Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 152, pl 252; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 62, pl 10.

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenugreek, p 64)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 801-2; Germer Flora p 68; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 151; Hepper Bible Plants, p 133; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 645, 646; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, p 116; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 2, p 135, pl 199.

Triticum dicoccum Schrank (emmer wheat, p 66)

Darby Food, vol 2, pp 486-92; Germer Flora pp 210-11; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 26-33; Hepper Bible Plants, p 85; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 57-61; Manniche Herbal, pp 152-3; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 505-36; Woenig Pflanzen, pp 136-80; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 39-47.

Typha domingensis (Pers.) Poir. ex Steud. (reed-mace, p 36)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 4, pp 117, 118, 435; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 4, p 345, pl 451; Germer Flora p 241; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 71-2, 176; Tackholm and Drar Flora of Egypt, vol 1, p 90.

Ulmus minor Mill. (elm, p 49)

Germer Flora p 22; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, p 77; Hepper Bible Plants, p 74; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, p 346.

Vitis vinifera L. (grape vine, p 67)

Cerny? Hieratic Inscriptions, pp 1-7; Darby Food, vol 2, pp 551-618; Germer Flora pp 116-18; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 49-50; Guash-Jane, M R et al. ‘First evidence of white wine in Ancient Egypt from Tutankhamun’s tomb’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 2006, vol 33, pp 1075-80; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 96-102; Laurent-Tackholm Faraos blomster, pp 224-9; Lesko King Tut’s Wine Cellar; Manniche Herbal, pp 155-6; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 577-608; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 143-50.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (withania nightshade, p 18)

Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol 3, pp 42, 43, 328; Feinbrun-Dothan Flora Palaestina, vol 3, p 164, pl 272; Germer Flora, p 167; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 12, 25.

Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (Christ-thorn, p 68)

Germer Flora pp 114; Germer Pflanzenmaterialien, pp 50-51; Hepper Bible Plants, pp 38-39; Nicholson and Shaw, Materials, pp 346, 347; Zohary Flora Palaestina, vol 2, p 307, pl 450; Zohary and Hopf Domestication, pp 198-9.