A second cornerstone of Roman military success was the ability to feed large armies. At the start of the campaigning season in Spain in 195, Cato the Elder (234-149) said ‘‘the war will sustain itself’’ (Livy 34.9.12), on the basis of which it has often been suggested that Roman troops in general sustained themselves through foraging and plundering. In reality, Roman armies could not rely on living off the land since this would have posed too many restrictions on the army and thus would have reduced its effectiveness. In order to put pressure on an enemy one needed the ability to concentrate many troops in one area and to retain their presence there as long as necessary. This was impossible, however, while living off the land, because most regions were not productive enough to sustain large armies and because the available resources were inadequate during winter. The Roman armies that fought against the Hellenistic kingdoms in the early second century not uncommonly numbered some
40,000 men (including servants and muleteers), and in addition about 4,000 horses and some 3,000 or 4,000 pack animals. The daily consumption of corn of such an army amounted to 60 tonnes. Because wagons hampered the mobility of the army too much, the primary means available to transport equipment and supplies in the army train was the pack animal, each carrying a load of at most 100 kg. Hence an army could not carry much food in its baggage train. In order to feed the armies on campaign, the Romans created a supply system that ensured a stable and secure food supply but at the same time least hampered its operational flexibility. This system consisted of the long-distance supply of provisions by sea or navigable rivers to strategic bases in or near the war-zone, from where a shuttle-system of wagons and pack animals supplied the troops.16
The period of the overseas wars saw a shift from ad hoc to structural means to satisfy the armies’ needs for corn. The First Punic War (264-241) was the first that engaged Roman troops for consecutive years in a distant war-zone. Polybius’ account of this war shows that the provisions for the troops stationed on Sicily were acquired by means of requisitions, contributions, and purchases from allied and subject communities as the need arose. The Second Punic War provided the impulse to create more structural means for the acquisition of corn on behalf of the armies. Rome needed to raise and support several armies simultaneously in order to fight the Carthaginians and their allies in Italy, Spain, and Cisalpine Gaul. The productive capacity of Italy was much reduced by the devastation caused by the Second Punic War, though it still had to furnish most of the provisions required. The sheer survival of Rome depended on whether Rome succeeded in managing the food supply of its armies. Hence during the later years of the Second Punic War an annual grain-tax, the decuma (‘‘tithe’’), was introduced in both Sicily and Sardinia, consisting of one-tenth of the harvest. In some years an additional tenth of the harvest was requisitioned. Rome relied heavily on existing mechanisms, as is indicated by the fact that Roman taxation on the island was governed by a law, the lex Hieronica, named after the former king of Syracuse, Hiero II (269?-215). A similar system was later introduced in Spain, where a grain-tax of one-twentieth of the harvest was levied. Roman levies in kind arose directly from the need to supply the armies.17
The system of acquisition and supply was put to good use during the wars in the East, which followed closely on the end of the Second Punic War. During the wars against Macedon (200-197; 171-168) and Antiochus (191-188), the Roman armies were largely fed from taxes levied in Sicily and Sardinia and from gifts of corn arriving from Carthage and Numidia. The corn supply of its armies enabled Rome to ship its legions to overseas war-zones and to maintain their presence as long as needed, regardless of the fertility of the region, the approach of winter, or the devastation that was the result of war. Having a secure food supply, the commanders were less often forced to engage the enemy at an unsuitable time, thus increasing their strategic flexibility. Roman troops could maneuver or just wait until the enemy was forced to fight under adverse conditions. However, operations were still restricted by the limitations imposed by climate and landscape. While Roman soldiers could march anywhere, it remained impossible to transport thousands of tonnes of foodstuffs into inland regions, which seriously undermined the war effort in the interior of the Mediterranean peninsulas. For example, because Rome could not concentrate large armies in inland Spain, logistical problems severely hampered Rome’s effort to defeat the relatively weak Spanish tribes.
In short, Rome created a political system in Italy that was determined by the needs of war and ensured that former enemies contributed to the Roman war-effort. The creation of provinces and the imposition of taxes, which were important steps in the process of state formation, were both a direct consequence of war. In general, we may conclude that the manpower of Italy and the material resources of the provinces, in particular grain, enabled Rome to raise and support the armies that defeated Carthage and the kingdoms of the East.
World History
