Classical

During this period a new medium came to the fore in large-scale Greek sculpture. Although a variety of media, such as iron, ivory, and clay, were used for the smaller sculptures of early Greece, during the Archaic Age most sculpture was of marble, usually from the Penteli quarries of Athens or from the Cyclades, notably Paros. In the Classical period, bronze sculpture became prominent. For this medium, the artist carved the image in wax over a wooden frame. Then, a plaster cast was set over the wax, which was melted out of the plaster (thus the term lost wax technique). Melted bronze was then poured into the mould over an internal frame in a lighter material, resulting in a hollow bronze sculpture. Often, Greek bronze sculptures are preserved only in later Roman marble copies, as the bronze was eventually melted down for other uses.

Perfection of the human form was the ideal of Greek sculpture in the Classical period. The statues of men, women, gods, and goddesses created in this period showed a careful balance of naturalism

And idealism, so that it looked as though the Greek world was filled with radiantly beautiful people all being seen from their "good side." Early fifth-century sculpture is dubbed the Severe style, as the statues have a lofty, unemotional, almost otherworldly look to them. The ultimate example of this is the Apollo from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (see Image 9.26). Here is an ideal rendering of male anatomy, with every muscle present and accounted for, and the god stands with a slight S-curve in his posture. His face is calm and serene, casting an authoritative look at the event unfolding around him (which happens to be a wedding brawl involving drunken centaurs).

Later, in the fifth century b. c.e., the high degree of naturalism achieved in the kouros was combined with an interest in portraying the body in action (at least for males). Thus, the Greek sculptors created idealized statues of mortal men engaged in athletic activities. An excellent example is the Do-ryphoros ("Spear-Bearer") by Poly-kleitos, originally cast in bronze and now existing only in marble Roman copies (see Image 9.22). This sculpture, dating to c. 440 and standing 2.12 meters high, shows a full rendering of the male body with careful focus on the underlying anatomy. The torso has the typical S-curve, in which the hips are tilted in contraposition to the line of the shoulders, making the statue look as though he is casually leaning his weight on one leg. In reality, this stance is not quite possible, as the body's weight would actually fall onto the "relaxed" leg. The fact that such a stance appears both plausible and appealing in sculpture is a testimony to the talent of the Greek artists.

Greater changes occurred in the de-

9.22 Doryphoros by Polykleitos (The Art Archive/Ar-chaeological Museum Naples/Dagli Orti)

Velopment of female statues during the Classical period. In the fifth century b. c.e., Greek sculptors developed the "wet look" in statuary, in which the female's clothing is so transparent and snug against the body that the body is fully visible under the fabric. Perhaps the most famous example of this is the Nike ("Victory") of Olympia, also known as the Paionian Victory after the sculptor Paionios of Mende (see Image 9.23). Here, the goddess Nike alights from flight, her left foot just touching down upon Earth. One might imagine that the wind shear is blowing back her dress, which clings to her body, completely revealing her breasts, belly, and legs. Behind her, the diagonal alignment of her clothing gives the statue an added sense of movement and flight. So well executed is the statue that one hardly notices that the heavy cloth at the back of her dress does not match the light, clingy fabric on the front.

9.23 Nike by Paionios (The Art Archive/Olympia Museum Greece/Dagli Orti)

As visible as the female body was through the clothing, however, the Greeks still made a careful distinction between clothed and unclothed when it came to females. This was why the first nude female in Greek sculpture made such an impact. This was the Knidian Aphrodite, which the artist Praxiteles made for commission around 350 b. c.e. (see Image 9.24). According to the later Roman author Pliny (Natural History 36, §20):

Superior to anything not only by Praxiteles, but in truth in the whole world, is the Venus [Aphrodite], which many have sailed to Knidos to see. He had made two statues, and was selling them at the same time. The other one was of the clothed variety, and because of this the people of Cos preferred her, even though he had offered them for the same price, as they thought this was dignified and virtuous. The Knidians bought the rejected one, to far greater acclaim.

The nudity of the statue created quite a stir, such that Pliny went on to discuss men who actually tried to have sex with the statue in the sanctuary. Eventually, the Greeks got used to the idea of a nude sex goddess, and nude or partially nude images of her remained common in the Greek repertoire, such as the second-century Venus de Milo.

9.24 Knidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles (Courtesy of Paul Butler)