Daughter of Marcus Agrippa and for many years the wife of Tiberius
Desperately loved by Tiberius, according to the historian Suetonius, Agrippina bore him DRUSUS (2) the Younger and was carrying another child in 12 b. c.e., when Tiberius was compelled by Augustus to divorce her to wed JULIA (3), Augustus’s own daughter. Later, upon once seeing vipsania in the marketplace, Tiberius began to weep. The divorce had a profound effect upon the future emperor’s psychological stability, and he persecuted vip-sania’s second husband, asinius gallus, mercilessly Vip-sania died of natural causes.
Agrippina the Elder (fl. early first century c. e.) The daughter of Julia and Marcus Agrippa and the most bitter opponent of Emperor Tiberius and Livia
The feud that Agrippina conducted with Tiberius and Livia cost her most of her family, her friends, and eventually her life. Her mother was sent into exile on Pandateria after instigating one of the most sordid sex scandals in Roman history.
Married to the brilliant germanicus, son of Tiberius’s brother, Drusus, their union was a happy one and she bore him nine children. Germanicus and Agrippina both cherished republican ideals, a fact that did not endear them to Emperor Tiberius or to his mother Livia. Equally, Agrippina could be harsh, outspoken, and easily angered. Her support of Germanicus was unflagging as he grew in stature in the empire and as Tiberius and Livia began to cast suspicious eyes on them both.
Her devotion was often demonstrated, as during the mutiny of the German legions in 14 c. e. Agrippina stayed at Germanicus’s side until the situation became so critical that it was necessary for her to retire to safety, but her
A bronze sestertius of Agrippina the Elder, struck under her son, Gaius Caligula, 37-41 c. e. at Rome (Courtesy, Historical Coins, Inc.)
Departure so shamed the mutineers that the revolt quickly lost momentum. It was during this campaign that the future Emperor gaius “caligula” was born to her, and he quickly became a favorite of the soldiers on the frontier. In another campaign against the Chatti and the Germanic tribes under Arminius, Agrippina worked to keep panic from spreading through the great Roman camp on the Rhine by personally distributing food and clothing to the inhabitants. Lucius Aelius sejanus, Tiberius’s henchman, warned the emperor about this activity and the ensuing popularity of Agrippina and Ger-manicus among the people of Rome and the empire.
In 17 C. E., Tiberius ordered Germanicus to the East, and once again Agrippina followed him. In Rome, meanwhile, supporters of Germanicus were beginning to clash openly with supporters of Tiberius and with those of Tiberius’s son, Drusus. Gnaeus Piso, Tiberius’s governor of syria, was drawn into the affair on behalf of the emperor. As a result, Germanicus died under mysterious circumstances on September 26, 19 C. E., an event that turned Agrippina into an avenging fury. she had always been distant from Tiberius and Livia, but now she regarded them with open hostility She marched in the Roman funeral of her husband and announced that Tiberius and Livia had slain their own rival. The Romans responded to her grief and to her accusations, but their support could not protect her from Tiberius’s revenge.
Sejanus plotted her destruction with his usual deliberate pace, working all the time on Tiberius’s animosity for her. Agrippina did not help her cause either. She begged Tiberius to give his consent for her to remarry and then scolded him for the persecution of her friends and allies. When dining with him she refused to eat some apples offered to her by the emperor, thus antagonizing Tiberius; Sejanus had warned Agrippina against accepting
The apples from Tiberius’s hands, knowing it would offend the emperor.
In 29, Agrippina was condemned and exiled to the island of Pandateria, where her mother julia had perished. Tiberius personally flogged her before sending her away, putting out one of her eyes in the assault. At Panda-teria she suffered at the hands of her tormentors as well and was fearful that her sons could die at Tiberius’s command. Agrippina starved herself to death.
Agrippina the Younger (Julia Agrippina) (15-59 C. E.) The mother of Emperor Nero and, in her time, one of the most powerful women in the empire Agrippina schemed for years to gain the throne for her son, only to succeed and then witness the fading of her power.
Daughter of agrippina the elder and germanicus, she was married to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus in 28, giving birth in December of 37 to Lucius Domitius, later called Nero. When her husband died in 39, she and Nero were exiled by gaius caligula, so that he could seize their inheritance. The accession of her uncle Claudius to the throne in 41 brought them back to Rome. By 49, the aging emperor was convinced by the Freedman Pallas to marry his niece, and Agrippina supplied her own considerable charms to make his decision easier. The marriage took place and Agrippina assumed near total control of the state, running the bureaucracy and managing the distribution of gold.
For her son she provided everything possible to ensure his succession to the throne, even to the point of assuming the powerful title of Augusta in 50. seneca was recalled to tutor Nero (an act that she was later to regret). She also developed allies among the Praetorian Guard, especially the prefect, Afranius Burrus, whom she appointed to the office. Nero was adopted by Claudius in 50, marrying the emperor’s daughter octavia in 53. Finally, in 54, having outlived his usefulness, Claudius was poisoned by Agrippina so that her lifelong wish could be fulfilled.
Her power was supreme in the early days of Nero’s rule. With the title Augusta she ran most of the empire, as Nero was only 17. Nero grew resentful and tired of his mother, however, and ways were found to break her hold on him. Seneca and Burrus were Nero’s allies in this effort. Nero and his advisers took every opportunity to reduce Agrippina’s role in imperial affairs. The young ruler’s relationships with the freedwoman acte and pop-PAEA, the wife of Otho, were also used to curb her power. When Agrippina dared to suggest that Claudius’s young son, Britannicus, might gain support, the lad was poisoned. In 55, she moved out of the palace altogether.
The ruin of Nero, a process in which Agrippina had played a major role, led to her eventual murder. By 59, driven by his realization of unlimited power and by his lust for Poppaea, Nero began to plot Agrippina’s death. In
One of the most bizarre assassination attempts recorded, Nero placed his mother on a boat designed to collapse off the coast of Baiae. Miraculously she survived, although her close friend, Acerronia, was beaten to death by the oarsmen. Swimming to shore unaided, she made her way to her estates with only a slight injury.
Perplexed by the incident, Agrippina composed a letter to Nero, to the effect that she was saved and would visit him in time. Nero sent the Freedman Anicetus to complete the assassination. Seeing the assembled soldiers around her bed, Agrippina thrust out her abdomen, screaming: “Strike me here!”—the place where she had carried her son. Anicetus obliged her, and Agrippina, Augusta of Rome and the mother of the emperor, was hacked to pieces, a victim of the son she had raised to the throne.
Suggested Readings: Barrett, Anthony. Agrippina: Mother
Of Nero. London: Batsford, 1996;-. Agrippina: Sex,
Power, and Politics in the Early Empire. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996; Tacitus, Cornelius. The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated with an introduction by
Michael Grant. New York: Penguin, 1964; -. The
Histories. Translated by Clifford H. Moore. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951-56; -. The
Annals. Translated by John Jackson. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1925-1937; -. Annales.
Edited by Henry Furneaux. Oxford, U. K.: Clarendon Press, 1965.
Alamanni (or Alemanni) A group of Germanic tribes who migrated to western Europe as a result of the expansion of the eastern tribes. The Alamanni arrived at the frontier and pushed their way to the Main, Neckar, and Danube regions. In 213 C. E., Emperor Caracalla inflicted a serious defeat upon the Alamanni, but their sheer numbers and the strength of their forces allowed them to expand again. Severus Alexander planned to launch a campaign against the Alamanni in 235 but was slain by his own mutineering troops before he could do so. His successor, Maximinus, crushed them near Baden. The Alamanni had a vengeance of sorts in 258, when they pierced the Alps and threatened Rome itself. This time Emperor Gallienus routed them near Milan (see Mediolanum). In 357, Julian defeated them at Strasbourg, but most of Gaul came under their sway and remained so until the Franks overwhelmed the Germans in the fourth century.
Alans (or Alani) An Asian conglomeration of tribes of Sarmatian extraction, who were pushed out of their homelands in the region of Russia by the movement of the Goths, sometime in the early centuries c. e. Their subsequent migrations from the lands of the Bosporus brought them into confrontation with Parthia and the Roman-controlled province of Cappadocia. The Alans established a considerable empire along the Black Sea and traded with Greece. Continued migrations of tribes, the Huns in particular, drove them deeper into Europe, and hence into conflict with Rome. They were eventually overrun by the Vandals, sometime in the fifth century
See also sarmatians.
Alaric (c. 395-410 c. e.) King of the Visigoths Ruler of the tribe that occupied Lower Moesia after the dramatic battle of Adrianople, Alaric was an ally of Rome, under Theodosius I, who came to accept the Visigoths and to use their presence as a weapon.
Alaric, aware of the potential power in such as arrangement, decided to take advantage of the Western Empire, an effort doomed to failure. In 397, Alaric reached an accord with Constantinople and began to march west. Greece was devastated as a result, and Stilicho, the MAGIS-TER MlLlTUM and ruler of the West for Emperor honorius, pursued the Visigoths but failed to destroy the foe because of his own Germanic background. He won a victory against the Visigoths at Pollentia in 402 but did not finish the war by slaying the enemy. As a result, Alaric invaded Italy and chose Rome as the target of his army.
Rome was besieged for two years (408-410), and on the third attempt to breach the city’s defenses, the Visigoths were successful. Stilicho, having plotted against the East for so long, stood by as Alaric invaded Rome, and the Alamanni, Burgundians, Vandals, Suebi, and Alans swept across the Rhine. He was executed for his treachery in 408, two years before Alaric’s entrance into Rome.
When Rome had been ravaged, Alaric looked for a homeland for his people, not wanting to live in the metropolises they had destroyed. He thought of Africa for a time but managed to get only to southern Italy before he died. The new king of the Visigoths, Athaulf, was unable to establish a territory, and the Visigoths were forced to accept a reduced status in Spain.
Alavius See fritigern.
Alesia Site in east-central Gaul of the battle and siege between Julius caesar and the noted Gallic chieftain VERCINGETORIX. In January 52 B. C.E., Caesar hurried from Rome to the rebelling province of Gaul, where Vercinge-torix commanded the Averni and others in the most serious uprising that Rome had ever faced in a nearby province. Caesar immediately seized the initiative, sending his lieutenant, Labienus, orders to do what he could in the northern territories. Caesar tried to extinguish the revolt, but the generally unsuccessful attempts at Avar-icum and Gergovia convinced him to recall Labienus and to face Vercingetorix with all of his troops on hand.
His lieutenant joined him at Agendicum, and Caesar set out to find his foe in late June or early July. A brief battle ensued, but the Gauls were driven under Vercinge-torix into the city of Alesia (modern Alise), forcing out the women and children to make room for his considerable army of about 60,000 men. Caesar pursued the enemy, built massive siege works and began the battle of Alesia.
With siege battlements of approximately 14 miles in circumference, Caesar and his 45,000 men (mostly in legions but including cavalry of Germanic mercenaries and auxiliaries) prepared to withstand Vercingetorix’s attempt to break out of the city The entrapped Gauls, however, were soon joined by a huge relief army numbering from 100,000 to 250,000 men (sources vary as to the actual number). Caesar decided to rely upon his formidable position, the strength of his siege walls, and upon the iron will of his legions. In three desperate Gallic attacks all of these assets were tested.
The first assault was an onslaught against Caesar’s position that was bloodily repulsed. While his outside forces reorganized, Vercingetorix tried to break out himself but failed. Finally, a third assault was attempted but the Romans broke the impetus of the Gauls and forced them to retreat in disorder.
Vercingetorix was too shrewd to believe falsely that he or his people could win. Alesia surrendered, and the Gallic chieftain was taken to Rome and later executed in 46 B. C.E. Caesar then faced a demoralized enemy in the province and was able to pacify the region.
Alexander, Domitius (d. 311 c. e.) Prefect of Africa in 308
Alexander was involved in the revolt against the ruler of Italy, the usurper maxentius. This emperor, outlawed by the tetrarchy, controlled Italy and Africa, but Maxentius’s deteriorating political position gave hope to the provinces outside of his immediate reach. Domitius Alexander rose up and declared himself the ruler of Africa. His corn supply cut off and famine breaking out in Rome, in 311 Max-entius dispatched Rufus Volusianus, the prefect of the Guard, to Africa with several cohorts of Praetorians. Alexander was strangled, Carthage was once more destroyed and the revolt was ruthlessly suppressed.
Alexander of Cotiaeon (fl. second century c. e.) One of the great scholastic minds of his age
A Homeric expert, grammarian and well-known teacher whose guidance of students was free of vanity and pedantry, Alexander tutored MARCUS Aurelius, influencing both his thinking and his style. The emperor wrote in his Meditations that he learned “From Alexander, the grammarian, to refrain from fault-finding, and not in a reproachful way to chide those who uttered any barbarous or solecistic or strange-sounding expression...” Among Alexander’s many students, the most noteworthy was ARISTIDES, the rhetorician. The faithful student sent a long, laudatory letter to the people of Cotiaeon upon the occasion of Alexander’s death, talking of his goodness, generosity and patronage.
Alexander of Seleucia (fl. second century c. e.) Sophist and platonic expert
The head of Marcus Aurelius’s Greek secretariat during the last part of his reign, Alexander was born in Seleucia and became one of the empire’s leading Platonists, for which he received the name Peloplato, the “clay Plato.” His gift for words brought him to the attention of Emperor Antoninus Pius. Admiring him also, Marcus Aurelius summoned Alexander during the marcomannic WARS (166-175, 177-180 c. e.) and sent him to the Danube frontier, where he was given the post of secretary. His time was well rewarded by Herodes Atticus, the tutor and powerful adviser to the emperor. Alexander died at his post but was mentioned in the works of the writer Philostratus and by the emperor in his Meditations.
Alexandria The city in Egypt founded by Alexander the Great in 331 B. C.E.; by the second century B. C.E., Alexandria was a rival of Rome in prosperity and in trade connections, resting as it did on a centrally convenient location that served as a meeting place between the Eastern and Western worlds. Further, the city emerged culturally under the Ptolemies as a center for intellectual achievement. The Great Library of Egypt was located in Alexandria, and the metropolis was inhabited by Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Syrians, Africans, and large groups of Jews.
Ptolemy x, king of Egypt, came to the realization in 80 B. C.E. that any prolonged resistance to Rome would be futile and requested incorporation into the provincial system. Troubles seemed to haunt the city ever after. King Ptolemy xIII, desiring the sole kingship, feuded with his sister, Cleopatra; and Pompey the Great, fleeing to Alexandria in 48 B. C.E., drew Julius Caesar into the struggle. Caesar audaciously tried to hold the city against an Egyptian army led by Achillas and Ptolemy and joined by irate Alexandrians.
Augustus subjected the city to Roman control when he become emperor in 27 B. C.E.; unlike most provinces, strict laws were maintained. A prefect was placed over the territory, with his central administrative office in Alexandria. A large contingent of Roman troops were stationed in the city, because of the continued unrest in the streets. No city council existed, although the magistrates were appointed from the local population, and certain ethnic groups, such as the Jews, maintained private societies.
Social disorder remained a constant factor, but in 200 C. E. Emperor Septimius Severus decreed the creation of city councils. For the rest of the Roman period Alexandria progressed toward full municipalization to match the rest of the province and the empire. But the prefect never lost control, and Roman garrisons were always alert to trouble.
The remains of the sphinxes of ancient Alexandria (Hulton/GettyArchive)
That governing Alexandria was difficult was apparent to Julius Caesar: When the local citizens were not fighting Romans they were feuding among themselves. The Jewish population was a special victim of violent attacks; in 41, during a visit by King Herod Agrippa, riots broke out in protest against the Jews. In 66, Tiberius Julius Alexander, the prefect, committed two entire legions to quelling street turmoil; over 50,000 people died in the ensuing confrontations. More riots were recorded in 116, 154, and 172, and Emperor Caracalla slaughtered thousands in 215. Another rebellion broke out during the reign of Aurelian, probably in 272.
Unrest and seething hatred were a result of racial strife, but the intellectual environment of the city also encouraged philosophical and religious upheaval. Christianity spread quickly here, aided by writers and mystics of the time. By the second century C. E., and in the early third century, according to Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, the Christian community was well founded. In time, persecution in the city, and many writers, such as Origen and Dionysius of Alexandria, were directly touched by the imperial attempt to liquidate an increasingly troublesome sect. Under the late empire, the Alexandrian Church was powerful and existed on a par with those of Antioch, Constantinople and even Rome. The bishops appointed and consecrated their assistants in Alexandria, which brought about the jealousy of Constantinople. Christianity survived, and the religion prospered until the coming of Islam.
The envy of Constantinople was understandable. Alexandria was the jewel of Egypt, and when Diocletian reorganized the empire c. 295, the city was the seat of the comes Aegypti, the praefectus annonae and most of the other magistrates and officials. The trade that centered in and passed through Alexandria was maintained and remained constant until the Muslims reoriented its economic focus.
Alexandria was planned by the architect Deinocrates and then by Cleomenes of Naucratis. Situated on the extreme western end of the Nile Delta, the city contained a huge harbor and was flanked by the sea and by Lake Mareotis. A bridge called the heptastadium connected the mainland with the island of Pharos, with its mighty lighthouse. This construction created two harbors, the smaller Eunostos and the Great Harbor, corresponding to the city sections of Rhacotis and Bruchion.
Although little evidence remains of the actual city plan, some ancient locations can be found. These include the palace, with its own royal harbor, and, most importantly, the museum and library, which reportedly contained all available knowledge of the ancient world, and which was destroyed by Julius Caesar. The Jewish Quarter was in the far eastern part of the city, just within the walls. A little southeast of the Jewish section were the stadium, theater, and the Dicasterium, or Hall of Justice. The west possessed only two notable edifices, the Temple of Serapis and the Canopic Gate.
See also Alexandria, battle of.
Alexandria, battle of The military confrontation in the Egyptian capital between the forces of Ptolemy XIII and the Romans under the command of Julius Caesar. Following the battle of pharsalus in Thessaly on August 9, 48 B. C.E., the defeated Pompey the Great fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. Julius Caesar, in hot pursuit, arrived in Alexandria with only
4.000 men. There he became embroiled in the dynastic dispute between Cleopatra and her brother, King Ptolemy XIII. Caesar sided with Cleopatra and subsequently found himself besieged by an army of over
20.000 Egyptians under the command of the Egyptian general Achillas.
With his troops, Caesar faced one of the most desperate battles of his career. From late August of 48 b. c.e. to February of 47, the Romans fought a series of engagements but proved victorious because of luck and the arrival of reinforcements from across the Republic. The Roman defenses extended only to the section of Alexandria that contained the royal palace. Various attempts were made to break the perimeters, and a large Egyptian fleet of 72 ships menaced Caesar from the sea. He set fire to these vessels, which inadvertently resulted in the burning of the Great Library. His position remained precarious.
With a small fleet Caesar tried to extend his influence, but the presence of another Alexandrian fleet prevented this. After two more bitter battles, Caesar took the offensive and captured the island of Pharos. (Achillas, no longer in command of the Egyptian troops, had deserted to Cleopatra’s sister, Arsinoe, who poisoned him.) Caesar then assaulted the heptastadium, connecting Pharos and the mainland, but was beaten back with severe losses, having to swim for his life at one point.
By January victory seemed improbable, but news arrived that a large force of approximately 20,000 men had come from the northeastern provinces, under the command of the mercenary, Mithridates of Pergamum. Caesar joined the new forces, leaving a detachment in Alexandria. In February 47 b. c.e., the battle of the Nile was won by the Romans and the mercenaries, and Caesar returned to the city in triumph, thus ending the siege. He had a free hand in Egypt from that point onward.
Alexandria, Library of The most famous library of the ancient world, created by the command of the first Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt to preserve the light of Hellenic civilization and the sum of ancient Egyptian knowledge. The library was established most likely under Ptolemy I Soter (d. 284) in 290 b. c.e. and was completed under his successor, Ptolemy Philadelphos. The idea for the library is generally credited to the Athenian exile Demetrius of Phaleron, who enjoyed the patronage of Ptolemy I soter. The first surviving historical reference to the library is in The Letter of Aristeas (c. 180-145 b. c.e.). Written by a Jewish scholar working at the library, the letter chronicles the translation of the Septuagint (the Hebrew Old Testament) into Greek by the famed 72 rabbis.
Once opened to scholars, the library acquired a reputation as one of the key centers for learning in the ancient world. It offered vast collections on astronomy, medicine, geography, biology, mathematics, architecture, philosophy, and literature. Virtually every famous or arcane volume was stored on its shelves, available for reading and research. The exact numbers of scrolls, parchments, rolls, and volumes has been reported variously by different ancient writers. Callimachus estimated that there were
490,000 rolls; Seneca estimated that 40,000 rolls were burned in the great fire of 48 b. c.e., although it is thought that he meant 400,000; Demetrius Phalereus put the number of 200,000; Orosius counted 400,000; and Aulus Gellius gave the highest estimate at 700,000. The structure of the library was apparently situated in the Bruc-chium (northeast) sector of the city, perhaps next to the palace grounds. The library was also adjacent to gardens, columns, laboratories, surgeries, zoological gardens, and study areas that assisted the work of scholars. According to the Greek geographer and historian Strabo, the heart of the library was a Great Hall and a circular domed dining hall with an observatory in its upper terrace. The hall was surrounded by classrooms.
The Ptolemies exercised an aggressive policy of acquiring new books and items for the library. This was partly under the influence of the chief librarians, but it was also a reflection of the rivalry between Alexandria and Pergamum, located in what is today Twhey The competition was so fierce that for a time the exportation of papyrus to Pergamum was prohibited. The Ptolemies also reputedly had all ships arriving in the harbor of Alexandria searched for any desirable scrolls, keeping all originals and returning hastily inscribed copies to the owner.
The first of the librarians was Zenodotus of Ephesus, who was appointed by Ptolemy I and remained in his post until 245 b. c.e. His successor was Callimachus of Cyrene (c. 305-240 b. c.e.). He was responsible for organizing the first subject catalog, called the Pinakes, or Tables, of the more than 120,000 scrolls of the library’s holdings. Callimachus was succeeded in 234 b. c.e. by Eratosthenes (234-195 b. c.e.). Notable subsequent librarians were Aristophanes of Byzantium (195-181 B. C.E.) and Aristarchos of Samothrace (181-171 b. c.e.). The library began to decline in importance after the time of Aristarchos. Nevertheless, it was still one of the brightest beacons of knowledge in the Mediterranean when JULIUS CAESAR arrived at Alexandria in late 48 b. c.e. in pursuit of POMPEY THE GREAT.
While waging a bitter fight in the harbor area against the Egyptians, Caesar’s troops, in a defensive measure, set fire to ships. The fire spread quickly to the docks and the naval arsenals and then to the library itself, which was situated overlooking the harbor. The conflagration resulted in the destruction of perhaps as many as 400,000 rolls, although there is some question as to whether they were burned in the library or elsewhere. It is considered possible that the contents of the library had been removed and were stored in anticipation of transport to Rome and then burned outside of the library itself. This is supported by the statement made in the Bellum Alexan-drinum that the harbor had been designed in such a way to prevent serious fires. The loss of the library was still a tragic blow, and Marc Antony subsequently tried to make recompense by granting in 41 b. c.e. 200,000 rolls to Cleopatra, probably taken from the library of Pergamum.
The remnants of the library suffered a series of disastrous losses over the next centuries. In 272 C. E., Queen ZENOBIA of Nabataea launched a war against Emperor AURELIAN and struck into Egypt. The harbor of Alexandria was badly damaged, and it is likely that most of what remained of the library burned in that calamity. The fragments surviving the declining period of the empire were further reduced by the occasional burnings of pagan literature during the Christian ascendancy in Alexandria. What remained at the last perished in fires set by the Arab conquerors of Egypt around 642.
In the 1990s, the Egyptian government, in close cooperation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization launched an international effort to rebuild the Library under the form of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina. The new library was built alongside the University of Alexandria Faculty of Arts campus, in Shatby, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. The total cost of the project has been estimated at $172 million, not including the cost of the land, a conference center, and other expenses reaching $182 million. The official inauguration of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina took place in spring 2001.
See also writing instruments and materials.
Alexandria Troas City on the northwest coast of asia MINOR, west of MYSIA in the mountainous region of the Troad; named thus because of the legend that the entire region was once ruled by Troy. After the death of Alexander the Great, his General Antigonus became king of Asia, founding the metropolis of Antigoneia, later called Alexandria Troas or Alexandria of the Troad. While it never attained the status or wealth of the fabled Troy, Alexandria Troas was prosperous. After suffering in the CIVIL WAR of the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, it enjoyed many centuries of peace in the imperial age. The city was considered as the site of the new Constantinople but lost out to Byzantium (about 160 miles away).
Allectus (fl. late third century C. E.) A rationalis or minister of finance to the usurper Carausius In 293, his ambitions led Allectus to assassinate his master and seize power for himself in Britain and in some provinces of Gaul. He was apparently a gifted soldier and
Sailor, and his rule lasted for three turbulent years. sometime around 295-296, Constantius I (Chlorus) resolved to end the usurpation of power and set sail with two fleets to Britain, commanding one fleet and entrusting the other to Praetorian Prefect Asclepiodotus. After losing his enemy in a fog, Allectus disembarked his fleet and prepared for battle. Near Hampshire, Asclepiodotus fought and routed Allectus, and shortly thereafter Allectus was killed. Con-stantius entered London and thus found a power base for himself and his son, Constantine the great.
See also Britannia (1); gallia.
Allobroges A tribe in the province of gallia narbo-NENSIS (now southern France). This region was annexed early by the Romans. The inhabitants resisted the overtures of the Gallic chieftain vercingetorix when he led a Gallic revolt and were rewarded for their loyalty to Rome. Their capital was Vienne, and Gallia Narbonensis became the birthplace of such great Roman figures as the orator Domitius Afer, the consul Valerius Asiaticus and Emperor Antoninus Pius.
Alps The principal mountain range surrounding Italy that were important to the empire both as a symbol of strength and protection and a practical barrier for the defense of Rome. The strategic need to defend the frontiers of Italy prompted the acquisition of the Maritime Alps around 14 c. E. and the designation of the territory as a province under the care of a procurator. nero (r. 54-68 C. E.) later annexed the cottiaen alps, which helped to maintain a line of communications with Gaul.
Traditionally, the crossing of the Alps by a foe or political enemy (as in the case of usurpers from the provinces) was considered a strategic disaster, and a failure to deal immediately with such an event most often led to defeat. In 69, Otho allowed Vitellius to cross the Alps and was crushed at the battle of bedriacum. In 166, Marcus Aurelius campaigned vigorously to prevent a Germanic invasion of Italy.
Amandus and Aelianus Imperial aspirants from the Bagaudae tribe. In 286 A. D., these two led a revolt against Rome, citing the barbarian invasions of their lands and the crushing Roman tax system. Diocletian, the newly crowned emperor, sent his trusted aide Maximian to crush the rebellion. The Bagaudae were easily subdued, and Amandus and Aelianus faded from history.
Amaseia (or Amasia) A town in galatia (later cappadocia) that served for centuries as the capital of the kings of Pontus. Pompey reorganized the city and used it as an administrative center that survived until the time of Augustus, whose new provincial system made it a part of Galatia. As the east became accessible, Amaseia grew in economic importance. The city was also known for its deliberate and wanton cruelty to Christians during the periods of persecution.
Amathus City beyond the Jordan River, near Gadara. In 100 B. C.E., Amathus was captured by Jannaeus, also called Alexander, who was aspiring to the throne of Palestine. Pompey the Great reconquered all of the area c. 63 B. C.E., and in 57 b. c.e. Proconsul Galienus broke up Palestine. Amathus, like Jericho and Jerusalem, was a capital for one of five newly created districts.
Ambiorix (d. after 54 b. c.e.) King of the Eburones An opponent of Rome, Ambiorix attacked Julius Caesar’s army in 54 b. c.e. The Romans were spread out in a series of winter camps in Gaul (see gallia) when the Eburones rose in revolt. Ambiorix, their king, was a dubious military strategist but a convincing liar. He lured the Roman legate, Titurius Sabinus, to his destruction at Aduatuca but lost the opportunity to exploit that victory by failing to crush Q. Cicero and his Roman command. Caesar recovered and routed the combined enemy near the Sabis. Ambiorix escaped but was soon overshadowed by another Gallic leader, vercingetorix. Caesar mentioned Ambiorix in the Gallic Wars.
Ambrose (339-397 c. e.) Christian bishop and theologian, and the first Christian prelate to have been born in the faith
Ambrose was the son of a Praetorian prefect of Gaul and received a thorough education in Roman law. He served as the governor of Liguria and in 374 was called to become the bishop of Milan. Baptized formally, Ambrose set about enforcing orthodoxy within the church. virginity and the Virgin Mary were important teachings to him, and he wrote a number of treatises on the subject, including: On Virginity, To Sister Marcellina on Virginity, and On Widows. Most important to Ambrose, however, was the war within the church against heresy, in particular, against arianism. In 381, at the Council of Aquileia, he had the Arian bishops removed. He then wrote his two major works, On Faith and On the Holy Spirit, both of which attacked Arianism by defending the creed and the orthodox notions established in the Nicene system.
Temporally, Ambrose was a figure of tremendous power, epitomizing the decree to which the church had come to hold sway over the empire. in Milan, which many emperors used as a court, the bishop served officially as the imperial chaplain but unofficially as adviser. Because of his following, he influenced Valentinian I, Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius. He put to use the legal and bureaucratic system of the empire, not for himself but for the church and its policies. Through his influence paganism was sternly opposed. A synagogue in Callinicum was burned to the ground, and when the Empress Justina proposed that a church be given to the
Arians, Ambrose and his followers took possession of it, refusing to yield until the empress retreated.
His greatest achievement came in 382, when he convinced Gratian to remove from the Senate the Altar of Victory and then opposed the attempts of the influential Senator Symmachus to have it returned. In 390, when the Emperor Theodosius, angered by unrest in Thessalonica, massacred 7,000 people, Ambrose, as the bishop of Milan, railed against him. The emperor was forced to beg for forgiveness. Ambrose is ranked with Augustine, his greatest student, Gregory and Jerome as one of the most important fathers of the Christian Church.
See also Christianity.
Amici principis The Roman concept of the “friends of the ruler,” which was one of the foundations for the growth in power of the prefect of the praetorian GUARD into the third century In choosing the prefect (the commander of the bodyguard and, ostensibly, the most direct threat to his person), the emperor invariably chose someone he could trust and on whom he could rely. Very often the person given the post was a reflection of the princeps. Great emperors such as Hadrian and Constantine were served by able officials, such as Marcius Turbo and Asclepiodotus, respectively. Emperors like Nero or the aged Tiberius allowed venal officers to rise to power, men such as Tigellinus (Nero’s choice) and Sejanus (serving Tiberius).
The concept extended the power of the Praetorian prefecture in ways that went beyond mere affiliation with the emperor. For example, it was a common practice for a ruler to hand to his most trusted servant any tasks that were too vast, too time consuming, or too illegal for personal completion. in this way the prefects, by the third century, were controllers of the imperial finances, administration, and taxation, all under the guise of being the emperor’s “friend.”
Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-395 c. e.) One of the
Foremost historians of Rome
Ammianus was a thorough and prolific writer who detailed the active years of the empire from about 100 C. E. to about 378, in his massive History. of a military background, he served in the army of the Eastern general, Ursicinus, eventually moving to Gaul, where he encountered the future emperor, Julian, whose life was to form a large part of his extant histories. in 363, he accompanied Emperor Julian against Persia, after which he left the army.
After traveling through Greece, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, Ammianus came to Rome, between 378 and 383. it was here that he began to write the great history that was described by Edward Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire as being “mixed with the narrative of public events a lively representation of the scenes with which he was familiarly conversant.” The historian obviously intended to pick up where Tacitus left off, but unfortunately much of his work was lost. Only those writings detailing the times of Constantine II (partly), Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens have been preserved, roughly from 350 to 378.
A pagan like his idol Emperor Julian, he admired Christianity and accepted its growing place in Roman society and in the wider context of history.
Suggested Readings: Elliot, Thomas G. Ammianus Mar-cellinus and Fourth Century History. Sarasota, Fla.: S. Stevens, 1983; Jonge, Pieter de. Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XIX. Translated by P de Waard-Dekking. Groningen, Neth.: Bouma’s Boekhuis, 1982; Matthews, John. The Roman Empire of Ammianus. London: Duckworth, 1989; Rike, R. L. Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Ammonius Saccas (175-242 c. e.) Neoplatonist philosopher
Ammonius Saccas had a profound influence on subsequent thinkers, such as Plotinus, his student of 11 years, and the Christian theologian Origen. Ammonius Saccas remains a rather enigmatic figure in history because he wrote nothing, delivering his lessons exclusively in the oral tradition. porphyry, in his various writings, was the principal recorder of Sacca’s life.
See also neoplatonism.
Ampelius, Lucius (fl. third century c. e.) Writer and intellectual
Ampelius’s Liber memorialis (Book of Knowledge), was a considerable work, encompassing history, mythology, and geography It is possible to discern the influence of Marcus Terentius varro and Nigiduus figulus in his writing.
Amphora A clay pot used throughout the Mediterranean world to hold liquids, such as wine, oil, and even garum (fish sauce), as well as assorted dry products. Termed originally by the Greeks as amphiphoreus, meaning a jar that could be carried on both sides, its name was shortened to amphoreus. The Romans called it by the even shorter version: amphora (pl. amphorae).
Amphorae were found in many forms, although the general design was nearly universal. The pottery was shaped with a narrow neck and mouth, the latter with two opposed handles near it; the shape then became wider, with the actual width varying depending upon the specific needs of the maker. The most common size was about three feet three inches (one meter). Some amphorae had a flat base to permit free standing, but most had a knobbed or pointed base that served as another handle for pouring. Instead of standing, such amphorae were stacked. The mouth was narrow enough to allow a cork or seal to be inserted. Seals for the mouth were made of cork or fired clay (operculum). Over these was poured a cement seal that could be stamped with any kind of official cipher, such as the name of the merchant who was distributing the goods inside.
Owing to their composition from clay, the amphora was not always entirely sealed and was permeable. To avoid leakage, it was common for a seal to be added to the interior. Types of sealants included varieties of bitumen, resin, rosin, and pitch, although there seems to have been little differentiation in terms for sealants. Those surviving amphorae that did not have an internal seal are of great interest to historians and archaeologists, as the contents might have seeped into the clay. By examining the residue in the clay, it is possible to discern the original contents and thereby increase knowledge of ancient trade and eating habits.
Because of their wide use across the whole of the Roman Empire, amphorae have been found in a host of shapes and sizes. one of the most common areas of preservation is in shipwrecks, as they were a reliable means of transporting liquids and even such solids as olives, nuts, oysters, and figs. Among the best sites for preserved amphorae was the shipwreck of Albenga, dated to around the mid-first century. The ship had five layers of amphorae, numbering some 11,000 to 13,500 separate pots of different types.
As there was little change in styles of manufacturing and design, the dating of amphorae can be problematic. Further, there is little information about kilns. Surviving kilns are found in North Africa, Gaul, and Spain. Part of the problems rests in the fact that many kilns were attached to villas and latifundia, supplying the needs of the estate and possibly of the surrounding area. There seems to have been little in the way of an organized amphora industry; instead, the pottery was created at the sites of the producers of wine, oil, fish sauce, etc., to fill the specific needs of the merchants. In trying to systematize knowledge of amphorae, the 19th-century scholar Heinrich Dressel classified more than 40 types. other classifications were added in later years.
Ampius, T. Balbus (fl. first century b. c.e.) Roman tribune involved in the political struggles of the First Triumvirate
Of Spanish descent, Ampius gained the rank of citizen through the assistance of the consul of Pompey. He was a remarkable politician, gliding through the chaotic environment of civil-war-torn, Republican Rome. He served Pompey in Spain and then caesar in Rome, becoming his agent during the gallic wars. Put on trial for various offenses, he was saved by Pompey, Crassus, and Cicero. The officer placed his hopes on caesar’s campaigns and fought for his cause with his associate, C. Oppius.
Andalusia Part of southern Spain that became a vital center of Roman trade and was traversed heavily by marauding barbarian hordes entering Africa via Gibraltar. By 19 B. C.E., the entire area had been Romanized to the extent that the majority of its inhabitants spoke Latin and lived in the Roman style. Andalusia was influenced heavily by trade, and Italian merchants were common. Because of its fertility, the area produced large quantities of agricultural goods for Rome. The Roman name for the region was Baetica.
See also hispania.
Anicetus (fl. first century c. e.) A freedman and admiral during the reign of Nero
Anicetus was the prime mover in the murder of Agrippina THE YOUNGER. He was typical of the freedmen of the early empire. Ambitious, thoroughly unprincipled, and dangerous, he came to Nero’s attention by volunteering to complete the assassination of Nero’s mother, Agrippina, after a previous attempt had failed.
In 55 C. E., Nero sought an end to Agrippina’s power and influence. While at the theater, Nero and his tutor Seneca saw a ship split apart as part of a circus act. Nero resolved to build an exact duplicate, so that his mother would drown while sailing on it. Anicetus was probably the supervisor of the ship’s construction. When the bizarre contraption failed to achieve its purpose, due to Agrippina’s luck and will to survive, Nero searched for an assassin to finish the task. Anicetus is recorded by Tacitus as volunteering to accomplish the deed. He did so, murdering the imperial mother in 59 c. E. with a sword thrust to her womb.
Anicetus was given command of the fleet at Misenum as a reward but performed one last chore for Nero. In 62, while trying to rid himself of his wife octavia, Nero asked Anicetus to plead guilty to having had an affair with her. Anicetus accepted the role, providing testimony that went far beyond what was required. The freedman was found guilty, exiled to Sardinia, and provided with every possible comfort. He died there of old age. Octavia was exiled to Pandateria, where she died after terrible suffering.
Annalists The earliest Roman historians, who recorded events in a prose style that influenced those who followed in this literary field. Records of magistrates, wars and events of religious importance began to appear after the fourth century B. C.E., and in a variety of forms. Most were written by antiquarians who were anxious to piece together the lives or works of their predecessors. For example, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, historian of the late first century B. C.E., analyzed Fabius Pictor, who lived a century before. These early writers were heavily influenced by their Hellenic counterparts, and adaptation of the Greek style is apparent.
Early works of the Annalists centered on legends and speculative antiquarian history and were often feeble when compared to the prodigious research of later writers, such as the historian Coelius Antipater, who chronicled the second Punic War. But the later Annalists could consult actual records, and their works, from the sullan archivists to livy in the first century B. C.E., were rich in evidence. sallust, for example, took the Annalist Sisen-nus’s work on the civil wars of 91 to 82 b. c.e. and incorporated large portions of it into his own Histories in the late first century b. c.e.
It is debatable as to how thoroughly researched many of these works were. Each must be examined individually. Aelius Tubero is reliable, as is Licinius Macer. Gradually the influences became standardized, and Livy helped to formalize a style that was identifiable in the work of later historians, especially tacitus.
Anna Perena A goddess who was the focus of a great festival on the 15th of March each year. She was the deity of the new year, to whom the Romans prayed and offered sacrifices, especially at the shrines dedicated to her on the via Flamina. The Romans asked that the year would progress safely and abundantly.
See also gods and goddesses of rome.
Annius Verus, Marcus (fl. early second century C. E.) Grandfather of Emperor Marcus Aurelius A highly successful political figure of the late first and early second centuries C. E., Marcus Annius Verus held a consulship under Domitian but was honored twice more with the post, in 121 and 126. He enrolled in the Patrician class with the sponsorship of Vespasian and Titus and was later prefect of the city. His son of the same name embarked upon a similar career but died while still a praetor. Thus Verus’s grandson Marcus passed into his care and received the education that led to his remarkable character and intellect.
Annona The Roman supply of corn, a resource that received administrative priority in all eras of the state. The capacity to feed the population of Rome was a source of constant anxiety to the emperors, who recognized that a famine, even of short duration, could cause severe unrest and military intervention.
Augustus, acknowledging the need to maintain control over the distribution of the annona, named a praefec-tus annonae, who eventually became an influential figure. In previous eras the annona was tended by the aedile. Augustus created a cura annonae in 22 b. c.e., after a famine. Tiberius, according to Tacitus, paid careful attention to its maintenance, but Claudius, although giving incentives to suppliers, allowed the famine stock to be reduced to a mere 15 days. Trajan, accepting the need to extend the bureaucracy that ran it, placed the annona into the hands of a fiscus frumentarius.
Egypt and Africa were the principal sources of the corn supply, and every measure was taken to protect them. In 69 C. E., Vespasian withheld the boats needed to feed Rome, as leverage while occupying Egypt; and in 310 C. E., Maxentius sent the Guard itself to Africa to ensure that the grain would flow freely.
Anthemius (1) (fl. early fifth century c. e.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard during the reign of Theodosius II (408-450)
Anthemius was a loyal servant of the previous emperor of the East, Arcadius. On the death of the old ruler in 408, the seven-year-old Theodosius became emperor. Fearing chaos, Anthemius stepped in to serve as regent for the next seven years, becoming a judicious master of CONSTANTINOPLE. His service helped to preserve the power of the East at a time when the West was sinking fast into turmoil. Anthemius repelled the Huns under King Uldine, repaired relations with the West, fortified the cities of Illyricum to act as a bulwark against invasion, and ordered a fleet of 250 ships built as a protective force on the Danube. Most importantly, Anthemius rebuilt, strengthened, and improved the walls of Constantinople. Stretching for miles, from the Golden Gate to the promontory of the city, the Wall of Theodosius was a defensive perimeter of considerable strength, and Anthemius was singularly responsible for this achievement.
As was typical of the increasing intrigue at the Byzantine court, Anthemius found himself the victim of plots. Aelia pulcheria, Theodosius’s older sister (by two years), was named regent in 414, and Anthemius was replaced by another prefect, Aurelianus.
Anthemius (2) (fl. mid-fifth century c. e.) Emperor of the West from 467 to 472
In 467, it was widely accepted that only strict cooperation between the Eastern and Western empires could preserve Roman civilization. After emperor Libius Severus died, the capital at Ravenna went for months without an emperor. Pope Leo I, taking matters into his own hands, chose Anthemius. At first this seemed to be a very good decision. He came from a noble family, had served in the region of Thrace as its comes, was a magister militum from 454 to 467 and was consul in 455. Further, ricimer, the power in the West, who watched emperors rise and fall with regularity, became his son-in-law, when he married Anthemius’s daughter, Alypia.
With a strong military background (he had defeated both the Huns and the Ostrogoths in 459-467), it was believed that Anthemius was a ruler who could stave off the rapid decline of the West. Hopes were dashed almost immediately as the supposed heir of the great Theodosian line attempted an African expedition of overly grandiose proportions against the powerful king of the Vandals, geiseric. A large fleet was organized and launched in 468 under combined leadership. The effort was a debacle, and Anthemius received the first of numerous defeats.
King EURIC of the Visigoths in Gaul next came to Anthemius’s attention, and Ricimer allowed this campaign to be conducted mainly by the emperor’s son, Anthemiolus. Euric easily crushed him near the Rhone, and Anthemius held Ricimer accountable. In 472, the magister militum besieged Anthemius and his Visigoth ally, Bilimes, in Rome. Ricimer intended to play kingmaker again, and with his help Olybrius became emperor, a ruler desired by the Vandals as well. The defense of the city was courageous, but after Bilimes was killed, the city fell. Legend has it that Anthemius tried to flee dressed as a beggar but was recognized and beheaded.
Antinopolis A city in Egypt, founded on October 30, 130 C. E., by a decree of Emperor HADRIAN. The tremendous scope and vision of Hadrian’s mind had been influenced by Eastern thought, and Antinopolis was a living example of this. It was decreed into existence when Anti-nous, Hadrian’s favorite court official, was drowned in the Nile while taking part in an imperial tour. Antinopolis was the official’s memorial. Its laws were derived from Greek traditions, and many of the first settlers were Greek. Lying across the Nile from Hermopolis, the city in time became racially mixed, as Egyptians from the Faiyum region settled in its districts.
Antinous (d. 130 c. e.) Lover and confidant of Emperor Hadrian
In 130, while traveling through Egypt with the emperor, Antinous, a young, handsome courtier, drowned in the Nile River. He was so mourned by the emperor that Hadrian commanded a series of cultic ceremonies throughout the East. Antinous became Pan, Hermes, and the Greek ideal for beauty and virility in these rituals. The city of ANTINOPOLIS, across the river from Hermopo-lis, was erected in his honor. Antinous was a Bithynian, originally from the city of claudiopolis.
Antioch (1) Resting on the left bank of the Orontes, about 20 miles upriver from the Mediterranean Sea, Antioch served as the capital of the Seleucid Empire (see seleucia) in Syria for over 200 years, and then became a major metropolis under Rome’s rule. The city was bitterly disputed for centuries. Sometime around 300 B. C.E., Seleucus Nicator chose a fertile valley wherein to build his great city, an economic center named after his father, Antiochus. With a geographical situation similar to Alexandria, and its position on the great trade routes, Antioch became a powerful commercial center and a tempting target for Rome.
In 64 B. C.E., POMPEY THE GREAT seized the city, which was weakened as a result of the broader Seleucid decline. The new province of SYRIA was created, and Antioch made its capital. Around 47 B. C.E., Julius Caesar gave Antioch its own municipal standing. Subsequently, the city was a base of operations for the Roman campaigns against Parthia. In 37 B. C.E., Antony prepared for his abortive Parthian campaign there, and the city was marked by an increasing administrative and martial presence because of the threat posed by the eastern empires.
Augustus stationed at least one legion in the city, which kept the peace and acted as a reserve for the troops on patrol in the north of the province. Emperor Tiberius furthered the Roman presence by instituting a considerable building program of theaters and temples. By 19 c. e. the general Germanicus was centering his expeditions of the East in the city, and eventually died there.
As colonization and trade with the East increased, Antioch grew in both economic vitality and strategic importance. The Syrians responded wholeheartedly, while life in the Syrian provinces was held by the legions to be the easiest and most pleasant tour of duty in the empire. The quality of life in Antioch demonstrated imperial favor and confidence in the city’s future, to the point that an imperial mint was established there.
Economic wealth, much like that experienced in Alexandria, encouraged migration and education. People from all over the East came to its gates, causing strife and intellectual achievement to emerge simultaneously. Greeks, Syrians, Italians, Persians, and Jews lived in Antioch, and bitter feuds erupted as a result. When troubles began in Egypt between the Jews and Greeks c. 40 C. E., similar problems appeared in Antioch as well. Antioch was unmatched in the Eastern Empire for the quality and quantity of its schools, philosophers, and writers. Various philosophies not only flourished there but also gave birth to leaders and innovators, including the jurists Ulpian and Papinian; Antiochus of Ascalon; the historian Posidonius of Apamea; St. John Chrysostom; the orator and rhetorician Libanius; and the writer and orator Fronto of Emesa.
Religiously, Antioch, like Syria, was a mix of ancient Chaldean, Greek, Roman, and Semitic creeds. But within a short time Christianity seriously impacted upon it; possibly prompted by the appearance of St. Paul, use of the word “Christian” was reported in the city in the first century c. E.’s Acts of the Apostles. By the fourth century, Antioch was ranked with Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria as a seat of one of the four patriarchs of the Christian Church.
A city so seemingly blessed was also beset with troubles. In 115 C. E., Antioch was virtually destroyed in one of the worst earthquakes recorded in the ancient world. Emperor Trajan was visiting at the time but miraculously escaped injury The historian Dio noted that while many cities suffered, Antioch was the most damaged.
In 194 C. E., after Emperor Septimius Severus defeated the Antioch-supported Emperor Pescennius Niger at the battle of Issus, the city was reduced in status, but was eventually reinstated. Emperor Caracalla based his Parthian campaign of 215 there, and Elagabalus defeated the briefly reigning Macrinus outside of the city walls.
Sometime around 256, the weakness of Rome in Syria was demonstrated by the capture of Antioch by Sha-pur I, the king of Persia. The historian Ammianus Mar-cellinus and orator Libanius were both from Antioch and wrote of the capture, stating that it came so quickly that the people were not even aware of it. An actor in a theater stopped his performance and announced to the audience that unless he was dreaming the Persians were present. Such invasions, however, did not prevent the continued flowering of the city. Because of its trade connections and its linen industry, Antioch remained a vital center until late in the history of the empire and the Byzantine Empire.
Antioch, like Syria in general, is remarkably well-preserved archaeologically, and much information is extant as to its design, structure, and pattern of architectural development. Like Alexandria, the city was both a port and a target for land-based caravans. The port of Seleucia on the Mediterranean Sea, near the mouth of the Orontes, handled the sea trade, while the city itself accommodated trade from the desert areas. Antioch fronted the wide stretches of the Syrian landscape leading eastward to the Euphrates River and thence into Parthia. To the south lay the trading centers of Damascus, Tyre, Berytus, and Judaea, while to the north were Cilicia and the provinces of Asia Minor.
Antioch was advanced for its time. Sewers with organized pipe systems were accompanied by aqueducts. Architecturally, the rest of Syria looked to Antioch to establish the styles for their own regions, and Greek, Oriental, and Roman designs all flourished. Originally, Antioch had been erected by the Seleucids to serve as a great city and numerous temples and palaces were built, most of which were eventually supplanted by Greek and Roman structures. However, Oriental designs continued to prevail, as the Eastern Church, influenced by its Greek foundations and the tastes of Constantinople, reigned supreme in the construction of temples and churches.
Antioch (2) A Roman colony built by Augustus circa 19 B. C.E. In 25 B. C.E., Amyntas, the ruler of Galacia who had been granted his kingdom by Marc Antony, died. The region, troubled by hillmen from Homanades and Pisidia, was immediately taken by Augustus, who wanted to stabilize the area and make it more responsive to his broadened Asian policies. To the south, near Pisidia, a community called Antioch had been founded earlier, probably by colonists from Magnesia. To populate the colony, which was given the name Caesarea Antiochus, veterans of two legions, the V and VII Gallica, were brought in. Hardy and militarily capable, these veterans helped pacify the tribes and gave the colony a solid foundation. Slowly Antioch connected itself by roads to such important cities as Iconium, Pergamum, and Antioch of Syria.
World History
