Excavations by Marshall at the Bhir mound, the earliest city, reached the natural substrate at a depth of about 5.5 meters (18 ft.) and encountered the remains of four superimposed structures. The earliest, of which little is known because of its depth and destruction by later construction activity, dates to the fifth century b. c.e. at the latest. The second was in occupation during the fourth century b. c.e. and would have witnessed the arrival of Alexander the Great. The third phase corresponds to the period of Mau-ryan control, and the last probably belongs to the period after the decline of the Mauryas and the arrival of the bac-TRIAN GREEKS in the second century b. c.e. The excavations revealed streets, lanes, and domestic houses. The quality of the stone masonry developed over time from fairly rough to a much more compact form, and the walls were covered in a mud plaster strengthened with straw.
Most of the available plans derive from the third period, the Mauryan city The layout of the streets and houses is irregular. It is evident that the main street and various squares were retained throughout the life of the city, whereas houses were leveled and rebuilt on occasion, but on the same site and often following a plan similar to that used for their predecessors. Some lanes branching off the main streets are very narrow. The drains running along the main street were to take rainwater. There was no city sewage system, but each house was equipped with a deep pit to receive human waste. Such latrines were also placed in public squares. There were several types of latrines. They have in common a deep circular well-like hole extending up to seven meters (23 ft.) into the ground. Some were filled with broken pottery shards to allow wastes to filter downward. Others were lined with ceramic rings: One of these held 14 such liners, each 65 centimeters (26 in.) wide. A third type was filled with large ceramic jars one on top of the other, each having the base removed to form one continuous tube. Large stone rubbish bins were also strategically placed in public areas, and excavations revealed broken pottery and animal bones. The houses were a series of large rooms grouped around a courtyard. windows looking onto the street were tall but very narrow. Many rooms were small, and others had a street frontage and were probably shops. One appears to have been the business of a shell worker, since Marshall found much cut shell within.
As might be expected in the excavation of so large an area of an ancient city, many artifacts were recovered. Beads had many forms, with a preference for glass, car-nelian, and agate. Other semiprecious stones included onyx, amethyst, beryl, and garnet. A remarkable hoard of 1,167 silver coins was discovered in the second city, including a silver Persian coin and two coins of Alexander the Great. Among the bronzes, particular attention is given to a third-century b. c.e. bowl made of an alloy containing 21.55 percent tin. This alloy and the shape of the vessel recall those found in the Thai cemetery of ban don TA PHET. Iron was used for weapons, particularly arrowheads, spears, and daggers; for tools such as chisels, adzes, and tongs; nails for construction purposes; and for hoes.
World History
