If the main thrust of eighteenth-century ideas would ultimately be favorable to the Modernes, this did not mean that the literary ideals of classicism disappeared overnight. The classical tradition continued in epic poetry (including Voltaire’s Henriade of 1723-8), didactic poetry, and the ode; tragedy (in particular Crebillon [1674-1762] and Voltaire again), and even comedy (Lesage). But the dynamic force of writers such as Racine, who knew how to exploit and bend the rules of classicism to emotional and aesthetic ends, was largely missing, and writing classical literature became more a question of applying a formula. The Romantic authors of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries would reject the classical norms in favor of a freer form of writing.
The eighteenth century was a period of upheaval in the realm of education. Until they were closed down in 1762, Jesuit colleges continued to provide many pupils with a sound classical education, but the universities went through a relatively stagnant period, acting largely as a conservative force, as they had done in the sixteenth century. Nevertheless, there was interest in classical literature both within the universities and outside, as is demonstrated by the Querelle d’Homere (Quarrel over Homer), which lasted from 1711 to 1717. A continuation of the Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes, this new controversy centered on Anne Dacier’s translations of the Iliad (1711) and the Odyssey (1716), and the reactions to them of the Modernes, such as Houdar de La Motte and abbe Jean Terrasson. At stake was not only the status of Homer as a model of epic poetry, but also the question of how best to translate the Homeric epics into French (Letoublon and Volpilhac-Auger 1999: 89-103). The eighteenth century also witnessed the most significant event in Homeric publication since Henri Estienne’s 1566 edition of the Greek epic poets. Jean-Baptiste Gaspard d’Ansse de Villoisin’s edition of the Venetus A manuscript of the Iliad (1788), with its 532 pages of previously unpublished scholia, revolutionized the way in which Homer would be read and interpreted in future years, even calling into question the identity of ‘‘Homer’’ as a single poet (Letoublon and Volpilhac-Auger 1999: 41-61).
This academic interest in the classics was also mirrored in the ideas that helped nurture the French Revolution, looking back as it did to the democratic values of the Roman Republic or Athenian democracy as an alternative to the monarchical systems that had dominated since ancient times. Education was seen as central to the new Republic, and in 1793 wide-sweeping reforms resulted in all 24 French universities being abolished and the innovative ecoles centrales (central schools) being established in 1795. These latter were replaced in 1802 under Napoleon by the lycees (high schools), and a new, strictly secular university system was set up in 1808. The introduction of the baccalaureat (baccalaureate) saw a return to humanist values, with a renewed emphasis on Greek as well as Latin literature. These new republican values are clearly seen in the art of the period, with painters such as David (1748-1825) drawing on classical themes to celebrate the new political regime. The effects of these reforms may be seen in the new generation of writers that grew up in the nineteenth century.
World History
