Canopic jars Containers used in funerary rituals to preserve the viscera of the deceased Egyptians after embalming, the jars varied in style over the centuries but were useful throughout Egypt’s history, considered a vital part of the elaborate mortuary processes. The name given to the vessels is Greek, not Egyptian, because the shape resembled the tributes made to the Greek hero Canopus in early periods. The vessels were made out of wood, pottery, faience, cartonnage, or stone.
In the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B. C.E.), the canopic jars were squat in design, with plain lids and seals. By the time of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.), the stoppers had been designed to represent the specific patrons of the dead, the sons of horus involved in the protection of a specific human organ. The jar containing the liver was under the protection of the god IMSETY, and the stopper was carved into the shape of a human head with a beard.
The jar protecting the lungs used hapi (2) as a patron, and the stopper on this vessel was shaped to represent the head of a baboon. The canopic jar containing the embalmed stomach was protected by duamutef, and his form was the jackal. The intestines, protected by QEBEHSENNUF, had a stopper in the form of a hawk’s head. The canopic jars were enclosed within elaborately designed cabinets and kept separate from the mummified corpse. Various protective deities were used to guard the cabinet. In canopus, osiris was worshiped as well in the form of a canopic jar. The use of jars declined in the Twenty-first Dynasty (1070-945 B. C.E.), as the mummification process was reformed and employed a method of returning the viscera to the body.
See also mortuary rituals.
Canopus A site on the western coast of the Nile Delta, near Abu Qir, on the Canopic branch of the river, now silted over, the city was called pe Gewat in early times and was a cult center for the god osiris. A temple was maintained there, and Canopus was the center of Egypt’s ointment industry In time, the Greeks of the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.) initiated shrines of the god serapis at Canopus. The name Canopus is derived from osirian cultic rites and Greek mythology In his shrines, osiris was worshiped under the form of a human-headed vessel, the CANOPIC JAR, named by the Greeks after their hero.
Canopus Decree Also called the “Table of Tanis,” a trilingual text dating to March 7, 238 b. c.e., the decree honored ptolemy iii euergetes (r. 246-221 b. c.e.) and his consort Berenice (3). Two copies of the decree were found in tanis in 1886, inscribed in Greek and in the Egyptian language forms called demotic and hieroglyphic. The Canopus Decree aided modern scholars in deciphering the ancient language.
Carchemish, Battle of The military confrontation between nebuchadnezzer of Babylon and necho ii (r.
610-595 B. C.E.) of Egypt’s Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Car-chemish, once located on the Euphrates River, near modern Jarblus, Syria, had been part of Egypt’s empire carved out by the New Kingdom Period rulers (1550-1070 B. C.E.). Nebuchadnezzer assaulted the Egyptians as the military commander of his father, Nabopolassar, king of Babylon. He defeated Necho Il’s forces and made Car-chemish and the surrounding areas part of Babylon’s holdings.
Carmel, Mount In northwestern modern Israel, at Haifa, called “Antelope Nose” by the Egyptians. Mount Carmel divides the Plain of Esdraelon and Galilee from the Plain of Sharon. The mountain covers 95 square miles and rises about 1,791 feet at its highest peak. The Egyptians revered Mount Carmel as a holy site, and tuthmosis III (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) led an army across the mountain’s heights single file, to fall upon the ruler of Kadesh and his allies at Ar-Megiddo, a fortress in the pass. The Canaanites faced a formidable force of Egyptian archers and the dreaded cavalry units and fled into Ar-Megiddo, where they were surrounded by a siege wall and starved into submission by Tuthmosis III. Ar-Megiddo is modern Armageddon.
See also tuthmosis iii’s military campaigns.
Carnelian A semiprecious stone mined in nubia (modern sudan) and highly prized by the artisans of every age in Egypt, carnelian was used in amulets, jewelry, and insignias, and the Egyptians conducted military campaigns to maintain access to the stone. Carnelian was also a part of the extensive trade carried across Nubia.
See also Egyptian natural resources.
Cartonnage This was a unique form of funerary wrappings composed of a combination of plaster, linen, papyrus, and other pliable materials used for the manufacture of sarcophagi and mummy masks, starting in the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.). Linen sheets were glued together with gums or resins and covered with plaster in order to shape the masks to the contours of the head and shoulders of the mummies. The masks were then gilded and painted to provide a realistic portrait of the deceased. By the end of the Middle Kingdom (1640 B. C.E.), however, the cartonnage was extended to cover the entire mummified form.
See also coffins.
Cartouche The modern French word designating the original Egyptian symbol called the shenu or shennu, “that which encircles,” a cartouche is an ellipse found in reliefs, paintings, sculpture, and papyri encircling certain royal names of the ancient pharaohs, starting in the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b. c.e.). The form evolved from the hieroglyph for eternity, a circle called
Chariots 8i
The shen and symbolizing the course of the sun. In time, the form was elongated and used as a frame for the names of the pharaohs. The double knot used in the symbol is an amulet of power. A stela depicting the royal name of djet (Wadj; r. c. 2300 b. c.e.) was discovered at
ABYDOS.
Cat An animal associated in ancient Egyptian cultic rituals with the goddess BASTET and in some eras considered a manifestation of the god re as well, in funerary legends the cat took up residence in the persea tree in Heliopolis. The word for cat in Egyptian is miu, the feminine being mut (translated by some as “kitty”). There is some evidence of the domestication of cats in predynastic times (before 3,000 b. c.e.) and cats were used in hunting, much as dogs are used today Cats, however, were not represented in tomb paintings until the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B. C.E.) and were very popular in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.). They were depicted as sitting under the chair or on the lap of the deceased. Cats were also featured in dream books, and the satirical PAPYRUS uses them for ironic effects. mortuary rituals warned against cat-shaped demons in the tuat, or the Underworld.
Cataracts The white-water falls or rapids of the NILE River, six in number, these dangerous regions of the Nile extended from ASWAN to just above modern Khartoum in the Sudan. The first cataract, south of Aswan, served as the natural barrier along the original southern border of Egypt. The rulers of the various dynasties began exploring the territories to the south, and the region between the first and second cataract was always important as a trading area. The Egyptian settlements and fortresses in the cataract regions during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties (2575-2465; 2465-2323 b. c.e.) indicate that the Egyptians had started a process of incorporation. The unsettled period following the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2150 B. C.E.) caused the Egyptians of the area to withdraw from the region to some extent, but in the Eleventh Dynasty (2040-1991 B. C.E.) control was established once again. The Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs (1550-1070 b. c.e.) pushed as far south as kurgus. During the periods in which the territories below the first cataract were held by the Egyptians, the administration of the territory was conducted at elephantine Island at ASWAN or at another southern post by a special viceroy.
See also canal of sehel.
Cenotaphs The mortuary complexes or simple tombs built to provide a probable religiously motivated burial site that remained empty, the cenotaphs contained no bodies but were ceremonial in nature. Much debate is in progress concerning cenotaph sites and purposes. In the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.), the rulers normally erected cenotaphs in ABYDoS, the cultic center of the god OSIRIS.
C-Group A people of nubia (modern Sudan), who lived in a region called wawat by the Egyptians (c. 2100-1500 B. C.E.), they are noted as early as the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.). By the reign of senwosret i (1971-1926 B. C.E.), the C-Group people were considered a threat to Egypt. Senwosret I constructed fortresses at the second cataract to control them. Troops were stationed there to monitor the movement of the C-Group on the Nile, and the forts served as centers for trade and gold-mining activities in the deserts of the area.
Chabrias (fl. fourth century b. c.e.) Military commander from Athens, Greece
Chabrias was employed by hakoris (r. 393-380 b. c.e.) of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty to lead Greek mercenaries contracted by Egypt. Chabrias and his Greek units defeated the Persians attacking the Nile Valley. Hakoris also had an elite unit of Greek veterans serving as his personal bodyguards. Chabrias fulfilled his contract with Hakoris with skill and courage.
Chaldeans They were a people living in the alluvial plains at the head of the modern Persian Gulf. A kingdom was formed there as early as 2000 b. c.e. Hebrew records credit Nimrod as the founder of the Chaldean Dynasty that lasted from 2000 to 1543 b. c.e. The Chaldeans founded Babylon, Erech, Akkad, and Calneh, as well as ur. Trade and art were important to the Chaldeans, with land and sea routes employed. The so-called Ships of Ur were prominent in the ancient world and dealt with Egyptian merchants.
Chancellor A court administrative position in ancient Egypt that evolved over the centuries into the role of VIZIER. The first recorded chancellor, serving Lower Egypt in the reign of den (c. 2820 b. c.e.), was hemaka. The first recorded chancellor for Upper Egypt appears in the reign of PERIBSEN (c. 2600 B. C.E.). The chancellors were responsible for the annual census, supervising irrigation projects, land registration, taxation, and the distribution of goods among the temple and court workers.
Chariots Vehicles employed in military and processional events in ancient Egypt, becoming a dreaded war symbol of the feared cavalry units, the chariot was not an Egyptian invention but was introduced into the Nile Valley by the hyksos, or Asiatics, during the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1532 b. c.e.). Egyptian innovations, however, made the Asiatic chariot lighter, faster, and easier to maneuver. Egyptian chariots were fashioned out of wood, with the frames built well forward of the
A chariot design from a New Kingdom Period temple relief; the relief depicts a pharaoh in combat.
Axle for increased stability. The sides of the chariots were normally made of stretched canvas, reinforced by stucco. The floors were made of leather thongs, interlaced to provide an elastic but firm foundation for the riders.
A single pole, positioned at the center and shaped while still damp, ran from the axle to a yoke that was attached to the saddles of the horses. A girth strap and breast harness kept the pole secure while the vehicle was in motion. Originally, the two wheels of the chariot each had four spokes; later six were introduced. These were made of separate pieces of wood glued together and then bound in leather straps.
KAMOSE (r. 1555-1550 b. c.e.) was the first Egyptian ruler to use the chariot and cavalry units successfully. The Hyksos, dominating the northern territories at the time, were startled when the first chariots appeared against them on the field at nefrusy, led by Kamose. The horses of the period, also introduced to Egypt by the Asiatics, were probably not strong enough to carry the weight of a man over long distances, a situation remedied by the Egyptians within a short time. The horses did pull chariots, however, and they were well trained by the Egyptian military units, especially in the reigns of tuthmosis i, TUTHMOSIS III, RAMESSES II, and RAMESSES III. These warrior pharaohs made the chariot cavalry units famed throughout the region as they built or maintained the empire.
Charonnophis (fl. third century b. c.e.) Native ruler of Thebes during the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221-205 B. C.E.)
He rebelled against Alexandria. Theban rebels attempted to oust the Ptolemaic Period rulers but were unsuccessful.
See also rebels of Egypt.
Chemmis This was the legendary sacred floating island in the western Delta, near buto, that was the mythological site of the lovely legend concerning the goddess ISIS and her infant son, horus. Isis, impregnated by the corpse of the god OSIRIS, whom she buried, retired to the sacred island to give birth to the child who would avenge Osiris’s assassination. SET, the murderous brother of Osiris, also a god, sought Isis and Horus, but at chemmis the mother and child remained in hiding. The goddess wadjet was in attendance, arranging reeds and foliage to keep Isis and Horus out of sight. The legend, recounted each year in Egypt, was one of the greatest examples of the maternal and wifely instincts of Isis, who embodied the ever-faith-ful spouse and the mother ready to sacrifice herself for her offspring. Isis was beloved in Egypt and throughout much of the inhabited world because of this and other tales of her suffering and endurance.
Cheops See khufu.
Chephren See khafre.
Chremonides (fl. third century b. c.e.) Athenian politician aided by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 b. c.e.) Chremonides studied philosophy with Zeno of Citium and entered Greek politics. Around 266 b. c.e., he was accredited with starting a war over an anti-Macedonian alliance. As a result of Athens’s surrender, chremo-nides fled to Alexandria. He served as an admiral of the Egyptians during the Second Syrian War and was defeated in battle by antiochus ii theos, the Seleucid ruler.
Chronicle of Prince Osorkon This is a mysterious text dating to the reign of shoshenq iii (835-783 b. c.e.) that describes a civil war in Egypt, situated in the Upper Egyptian regions. Shoshenq III lost control of many southern areas as a result. Another crisis caused his kingship to be divided, giving rise to the Twenty-third Dynasty.
See also osorkon iii.
Cippus of Horus A form of stela popular in the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.) featuring the god Har-pocrates (horus as a child) standing on a crocodile and holding scorpions and other dangerous creatures, magical texts accompanied the image and provided protection against the beasts displayed. Water was poured over the cippus, and by drinking the water a person was rendered invulnerable. The Cippus was reportedly created by an Egyptian named Psammeticus-Ankh, and it stood in prominent sites throughout the Nile Valley Originally the cippus was a protective monument with powers to repel SET and the beast apophis (1).
Circumcision The surgical removal of part of the male prepuce, practiced by the Egyptians as part of their methods of hygiene and called sebi, male circumcision was not performed at birth but during adolescence. ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 B. C.E.) was not circumcised, as his mummified remains demonstrate. He was frail as a youngster, and the procedure may have been considered too rigorous for him. Scenes of a circumcision were discovered in a SAQQARA tomb and in a relief in the temple of mut in KARNAK. These depictions show that circumcision was performed on young Egyptian males, usually in their teens. A First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 B. C.E.) stela shows 120 young boys enduring circumcision. A curved flint knife was used for the operation.
See also medicine; priests.
Clapper A musical instrument of Egypt, also used as a warning or signal in religious rituals, the clapper was normally fashioned out of bone, metal, or wood. it was held in both hands and was fastened together. one part was struck against the other to produce a sharp sound. Some clappers were carved as elaborate hands and were highly decorated.
Claudius Ptolemy (fl. second century b. c.e.) Greek geographer and astronomer of Alexandria He achieved his status as a scientist in the reign of PTOLEMY VI PHILOMETOR (180-164, 163-145 B. C.E.) and became famous for his Geography, an atlas in eight volumes. Claudius Ptolemy also wrote on mathematics, astronomy, and music. His Geography, erroneous because of his miscalculations of the earth’s circumference and lack of astronomical calculation, was the standard work until the 16th century C. E.
Cleomenes of Naukratis (fl. third century b. c.e.) Counselor of Alexander III the Great (332-323 b. c.e.)
He was instrumental in building the city of ALEXANDRIA. Cleomenes was a Greek merchant who lived in NAUKRATIS, the Hellenic site founded in the Nile Delta by AMASIS (r. 570-526 b. c.e.) to serve as a center for Egyptian Greek trade. Cleomenes had knowledge of the NILE, Egypt’s markets, and trade routes. He became a finance minister under ALEXANDER III the great and supervised aspects of Alexandria’s growth. He also conducted an international trade monopoly and reportedly started extorting funds from Egyptian temples. Cleomenes was made assistant satrap of Egypt as well, aided by Pete’ese and Dolopsis. He was, however, executed by ptolemy i SOTER (304-284 B. C.E.) for his crimes.
Cleopatra (1) (d. 176 b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
She was the consort of ptolemy v epiphanes (205-180 B. C.E.) and the daughter of the Seleucid king antiochus
III THE GREAT, who had defeated Ptolemy at the battle of Panion, stripping Egypt of its Asiatic holdings. Cleopatra married Ptolemy V in 195 b. c.e. and bore him two sons, including ptolemy vi philometor, and a daughter, CLEOPATRA (2). When Ptolemy V died in 180 b. c.e., she became regent for the heir, Ptolemy VI Philometor. As a result she received the right to display her name as a cartouche and the use of a Horus name in her title. Cleopatra proved an able regent until her death.
Cleopatra (2) (fl. second century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
She was the daughter of ptolemy v epiphanes and Queen CLEOPATRA (1) and became the consort of her brother, PTOLEMY VI PHILOMETOR (r. 180-164, 163-145 B. C.E.). They ruled Egypt and Cyprus. Their reign was marred by an invasion by antiochus iv of Syria and interventions by Rome. Ptolemy VI’s younger brother, Ptolemy VIII, also rebelled against the couple and was given Cyprus as a placating gesture.
Ptolemy VI Philometor died in 145 b. c.e. after a fall from his horse. ptolemy viii Physkon returned to Egypt and married Cleopatra (2), assuming the name Euer-getes II. She was the mother of ptolemy vii neos PHILOPATOR (Memphites), who was born during the coronation rites at MEMPHIS in 144 b. c.e. Three years later, Ptolemy VIII married his niece and stepdaughter, Cleopatra (3), which led to his expulsion from ALEXANDRIA. Cleopatra served as regent for Ptolemy VII, but he was lured to Cyprus, where Ptolemy VIII killed him and sent his dismembered body back to his mother as an anniversary present. Cleopatra is remembered for her benevolence to the Jewish community of Egypt. She authorized the building of a temple at Tell el-Yahudiya Leratopolis in the eastern Delta. She was deposed by Ptolemy VIII in 124 B. C.E. but remained on the scene until ptolemy ix SOTER II was crowned.
Cleopatra (3) (fl. second century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
The daughter of ptolemy vi philometor and Queen CLEOPATRA (2), Cleopatra married her uncle and stepfather, PTOLEMY VIII EUERGETES II (r. 170-163, 140-116 B. C.E.). She bore him several children, including two sons, and began to work against her mother, Cleopatra (2), who was Ptolemy Vlll’s ranking wife. In 132 b. c.e., Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra (3) were exiled and took refuge on Cyprus. There her brother was slain, dismembered, and sent to Cleopatra (2) in 124 b. c.e.
When Ptolemy VIII died at the age of 68 in 116 B. C.E., Cleopatra (3) became regent for her son ptolemy IX SOTER II (r. 116-107, 88-81 b. c.e.), granting him Cyprus when he reached his majority However, she preferred her son ptolemy x Alexander i, and in 107 b. c.e. she named him pharaoh, deposing Ptolemy IX Soter II.
When the deposed pharaoh invaded Egypt, Cleopatra (3) sent out a military force and pushed Ptolemy IX Soter II back to Cyprus. Ptolemy X Alexander I assassinated Cleopatra (3) shortly after, having grown tired of her dominance.
Cleopatra (4) (fl. first century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
She was the daughter of ptolemy viii euergetes ii and Queen Cleopatra (3), and she married her brother, PTOLEMY IX SOTER II (r. 116-107, 88-81 B. C.E.). This marriage was quickly declared invalid by her mother, Cleopatra (3), and Cleopatra (4) was deposed.
Cleopatra (5) Selene (fl. first century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
A daughter of ptolemy viii euergetes ii and Queen CLEOPATRA (3), she married ptolemy ix soter ii (r. 116-107, 88-81 B. C.E.). He had wed Cleopatra (4), his sister, but was forced to put her aside for Cleopatra (5) Selene, also his sibling. She endured Ptolemy’s exile in CYPRUS and his restorations.
Cleopatra (6) Tryphaina (fl. first century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period She was an illegitimate daughter of ptolemy ix soter ii and married her brother, ptolemy xii neos Dionysus (r. 80-58, 55-51 B. C.E.). Raised to the throne by the courtiers and councilors, the royal couple was hailed throughout Egypt. Ptolemy XII, however, was also called Auletes, the Flutist. He was dedicated to the arts and ecstasy and was a mere pawn of Rome. A younger brother of the royal couple had been made king of Cyprus, but he was deposed in 58 B. C.E., when the Roman Cato took Cyprus for Rome. The brother killed himself, sparking riots in Alexandria. Ptolemy XII fled from Egypt, leaving Cleopatra (6) Tryphaina with their children. Cleopatra (6) Tryphaina had been removed from her royal rank in 69 b. c.e. and welcomed her return to the throne but died soon after. she was the mother of Cleopatra vii and ptolemy xiii and xiv
Cleopatra VII (Thea, Philopator) (d. 30 b. c.e.) Last ruler of the Ptolemaic Period
She was the daughter of ptolemy xii neos Dionysus, called Auletes, and Queen Cleopatra (6) tryphaina. Cleopatra VII married her brother, ptolemy xiii (r. 55-47 B. C.E.), whom she had learned to despise for his weaknesses. she served as coregent with her father from 88 to 51 B. C.E. and then ruled with her brother, who exiled her from ALEXANDRIA in 48 b. c.e.
POMPEY the Great had served as a guardian for the couple, and he arrived in Egypt when he fled from Julius CAESAR. Pompey was slain by Ptolemy Xlll’s courtiers, who believed the murder would placate Julius Caesar, known to be hunting his enemy. Caesar arrived soon after
A relief depicting Cleopatra VII, the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Period, who committed suicide in 30 b. c.e. (Hulton Archive.) and restored Cleopatra VII to the throne. Caesar then became involved in the battle of the NILE, which resulted in Ptolemy Xlll’s death. The Roman general remained in Alexandria, and Cleopatra VII bore him a son, PTOLEMY XV CAESARION.
In 46 B. C.E., Cleopatra VII visited Caesar in Rome, and when he was assassinated she fled to Egypt. Her younger brother, ptolemy xiv (r. 47-44 b. c.e.) had served for a time as Cleopatra Vll’s regent, but she had him killed in 44 b. c.e. and put her son, Ptolemy XV, on the throne in his place. Together they ruled Egypt, and the Roman Senate recognized the royal pair in 42 b. c.e.
A year later, Marc Antony was in Alexandria, marrying Cleopatra VII after she bore him twins, Alexander HELIOS and cleopatra selene. Another son, ptolemy PHILADELPHOS, was born in 36 b. c.e. Marc Antony also issued a document called “the Donation of Alexandria” that divided parts of the Roman Empire between Cleopatra VII and her children. This roused Octavian (the future Augustus), who declared war on Cleopatra VII in 32 B. C.E. The battle of actium ensued, and Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony committed suicide.
Cleopatra VII was a brilliant woman who was skilled in political rule. Fluent in many languages, she also learned to speak ancient Egyptian, the only Ptolemaic ruler to have knowledge of the tongue. A Greek marble portrays her as beautiful, a contradiction to her depiction on her own coins. She was memorialized in philae and in a colossal carving at dendereh, where she is shown with Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Skilled in statecraft and history, Cleopatra VII received a gift of 200,000 volumes for the LIBRARY OF ALEXANDRIA from the ruler of Pergamum, occupied by Marc Antony
Suggested Readings: Chauveau, Michel, and David Lor-ton, transl. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000; Grant, Michael. Cleopatra. London: Phoenix Press, 2000; Holbl, Gunther, and Tina Saavedra, transl. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. New York: Routledge, 2000; Mysliwiec, Karol, and David Lorton, transl. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: 1st Millennium B. C. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000; Rowlandson, Jane, and Roger Bagnall, eds. Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt: A Sourcebook. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998; Walker, Susan, and Peter Higgs, eds. Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Cleopatra Selene (fl. first century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
Cleopatra Selene was a daughter of cleopatra vii (r. 51-30 B. C.E.) and Marc Antony. She was the twin sister of Alexander HELIOS and was made queen of Cyrenaica and Crete.
Cleopatra Thea (fl. second century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Ptolemaic Period
She was a daughter of ptolemy vi philometor (r. 180-164, 163-145 b. c.e.) who was given in marriage to ALEXANDER BALAS, the Seleucid usurper. She married three Seleucid rulers in succession as a result of untimely deaths and political upheavals.
Clocks The time indicators used in ancient Egypt, introduced around 3500 b. c.e. Known as a gnomon, this measure of time was formed by a vertical pillar used to cast a shadow and so indicate the time of day. The sundial, invented by the 8th century b. c.e., is represented by an Egyptian green schist form, the earliest such device surviving. The sundial had a straight base with a raised crosspiece at one end. Inscribed time divisions were intersected by the shadow of the crosspiece.
Water clocks also date to the New Kingdom Period in Egypt. amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) used them, and the Greeks adopted the timepieces, calling them clepsydras (from kleptein, “to steal,” and hydor, “water”). The water clocks were fashioned out of sloping vats, filled with water and containing a small hole. Pressure reduced as water escaped, but it still served its purpose in darkness.
Coffins The mortuary regalia that appeared in Egypt in the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.), designed to protect the remains of the deceased, such boxes were placed inside of mastabas, which were large enough to provide chapels and chambers for offerings. The coffins were painted on their sides to make them resemble the walls of the royal palaces, and doors, windows, and even patterns of hanging reed mats were fashioned as designs for these receptacles.
Illustrations of the tuat, or the Underworld, were often painted inside the coffins for the benefit of the deceased, and other maps, mortuary texts, and symbols were placed on the outside, with magical spells included for protection. Anthropoid coffins appeared in the Seventeenth Dynasty (1640-1550 b. c.e.) as large, wooden boxes. The cartonnage style used the external pattern of bandages with prayers and the name of the deceased. Collars and amulets were part of the design. By the Twentieth Dynasty (1196-1070 b. c.e.) the coffins had a yellow base coat with painted designs. Some had low reliefs that included headdresses, carved wooden hands, head collars, and braces.
Cartonnage masks were developed in the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.) but were extended in later dynasties to cover the entire mummified remains. Both the inner and outer coffins were fashioned in carton-nage, with idealized masks of the deceased along with the usual mortuary incantations. The anthropoidal coffins were elaborately painted, dressed in the robes of horus or in the feathers of the goddess nekhebet. The rishi pattern or feather design was popular in the Seventeenth and early Eighteenth Dynasties (1640-1400 b. c.e.).
See also mortuary rituals.
Coffin Texts These were inscriptions placed inside the coffins of Egyptians, containing spells and incantations intended to help the deceased on their journeys to the hereafter. Developed in herakleopolis magna in the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.), these texts evolved from the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b. c.e.) mortuary formulas. The Coffin Texts were composed of the PYRAMID TEXTS, which had been placed only in royal tombs in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (2465-2150 b. c.e.), and they were used by all Egyptians. Such texts had to be transferred to the coffins as the tombs became smaller, no longer offering wall space for inscriptions.
See also tomb texts.
Coinage A monetary system was not in use in Egypt until the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), possibly brought into the Nile Valley by tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.). No actual coins were minted in Egypt until the Thirtieth Dynasty (380-343 b. c.e.), as foreign monetary units were imported to serve the financial needs before that time. Prior to the introduction of coins, Egyptians relied on simple bartering, using copper, barley, or other commodities of exchange. The deben was a designated weight employed in such barters. By the reign of Tuthmosis III, units of gold or silver were used to measure monetary value. There were also metal tokens of fixed weight used for barters, called shet, shena, shenat, or siniu.
During the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.), coins from Greece were in use in Egypt, and the nation had a sophisticated banking system. The Ptolemies established public banking institutions in all of the major cities, with smaller agencies serving the rural areas as well. The central bank was in Alexandria, but agencies in other areas collected government revenues and handled loans to farmers and businessmen. Thousands of Egyptians were reportedly employed by these banks in order to keep them functioning in diverse regions.
Colors Often symbolic in nature, the various hues used in ancient Egypt were derived from mineral and vegetable sources. Colors lent a realistic, natural value in reliefs and other forms of art. Artisans began to observe the natural occurrence of colors in their surroundings and pulverized various oxides and other materials to develop the hues they desired.
Colossi of Memnon Sandstone statues that are still standing on the western shore of the Nile at thebes, they were once part of the mortuary complex of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty The statues stand 65 feet high, including their bases, and depict the ruler in a seated position, allowing his figure to dominate the landscape. The Greeks, coming upon them in later eras, decided the statues honored their hero, Memnon, who fought at Troy, and named them accordingly In
The gigantic mortuary statues of Amenemhotep III, called the Colossi of Memnon by the Greeks. (Courtesy of Steve Beikirch.)
The past the northernmost statue was said to have made musical sounds at dawn, amazing visitors and bringing it world fame until the Romans made crude repairs and silenced the statue. An earlier collection of stone statues, dating to the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) are in ruins in biahmu, erected by amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b. c.e.).
Companions of the Divine Heart Two deities called WA and AA, they made their home on the “primeval ISLAND OF TRAMPLING,” as depicted on the walls of the EDFU temple. They are called the Lords of the Island of Trampling and are associated with the god re.
Contending of Re and Set A mythological text found at THEBES in the Chester Beatty Papyrus I, the long account was written in the reign of ramesses v (r. 1156-1151 b. c.e.) and relates the confrontations between the child god horus and the deity set. The gods of Egypt who were called upon to settle the dispute debated for about 80 years but then made Horus the true ruler of Egypt. Set, banished from the abodes of the gods, was given lightning in order to allow him to frighten mortals.
Coptos See KOPTOS.
Corners of the Earth The four cardinal points recognized by the ancient Egyptians and honored in the construction of the pyramids and other monuments, the gods of the four corners were sopdu, horus, set, and thoth. Queen ashait, a lesser ranked consort of montuhotep ii (r. 2061-2010 b. c.e.), had a hymn to the spirits of the four corners of the earth in her tomb. This hymn remarkably categorized the physical aspects of the winds that came from each corner and was beautifully written.
Coronation rituals An ancient Egyptian ceremony that evolved from the Predynastic Period, before 3000 b. c.e., and was used upon the accession of each new ruler to the throne. The ruler was shown to the people in opening rites as the heir to upper and Lower Egypt. in some dynasties the ceremony took place while the old ruler was still on the throne, elevating his successor to a coregency that ensured an orderly succession. Another aspect of succession, not involved in the actual ceremonies of coronation but vital to the elevation of the new ruler, was the mortuary rite. Each new ruler had to be present at the burial of his predecessor.
Wearing the white crown, the hedjet, of Upper Egypt, the heir to the throne was led out to the people. He then put on the red wicker basket crown, the deshret, of Lower Egypt’s Bee Kings. When the crowns were united as the pachent, or pschent, upon the head of the pharaoh, a great celebration took place. At this point the ruler entered the hall of the NOME gods of Upper Egypt, wearing only the white crown. When these divinities welcomed him he repeated the same ceremony in the hall of the nome gods of Lower Egypt, wearing the red crown only The souls of pe and the souls of nekhen had to approve the new ruler. A stake was then put into the ground, entwined with the lotus and papyrus symbols of both kingdoms. The monogram or cartouche of the new ruler was worked in gold and precious stones alongside the stake. The crook and the flail, the symbols of Egyptian royalty traditionally handed down from the agricultural beginnings of the nation, were placed in the hands of the new ruler, who was then led in procession around the walls of the capital.
A ceremony called “the placing of the diadem in the hall” started in the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.). By the time of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), the rituals had become more sophisticated and elaborate. The inscriptions detailing the coronation of Queen-Pharaoh hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b. c.e.) describe purifying rites and a journey from thebes to HELIOPOLIS (at modern Cairo), where the god atum offered her the crown. amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b. c.e.) also made the trip down the Nile for his accession.
A proclamation of the pharaonic role was then announced in Thebes, supposedly by the god amun, and the new ruler was led before the courtiers and the people. Purified once again and robed, the heir received the crowns and was honored by the gods, portrayed by priests in masks serving as attendants. The concluding ceremonies and festivals lasted for several days and were occasions of immense joy for the nation. it was also believed that the gods and goddesses took part in the celebrations as the ruler’s name was inscribed mystically on the PERSEA TREE upon coronation.
Corvee A French word used to designate a unique form of labor used in Egypt: the king, as the living god of the
The Great Pyramid stands at Giza, the result of voluntary labors by thousands of Egyptians who answered pharaoh's demand for corvee, his right to ask for their unending toil on behalf of his mortuary site. (Courtesy Thierry Ailleret.)
Land, had the right to ask his people to assume staggering burdens of labor. This privilege of the Egyptian ruler has been viewed both as a form of slavery and as a unique method of civil responsibility The corvee was not slavery, although that particular system was formally introduced into Egypt in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B. C.E.). The massive constructions along the Nile were possible only because of the seasonal enlistment of the Egyptian people.
Vast armies of workers left their fields and orchards and took up their construction tasks with enthusiasm because of the spiritual rewards of their labors, especially at royal mortuary sites. Each man called to the scene of royal projects worked his allotted hours and went home carrying beer and bread. Work was seasonal and carried out in shifts, depending upon the Nile’s inundations and the readiness of the land for sowing or harvesting. Elaborate camps were established on the sites of building projects, and entertainment and medical care were provided for the workers during rest periods. Women were also drafted to aid in some large projects. They cooked, cared for the sick, wove clothes, and aided the workers. In return they were sent home with ample supplies and honor. The corvee was possible only in times of dynastic strength and stable government. When a dynasty failed, as in the First (2134-2040 b. c.e.) and Second (1640-1550 B. C.E.) Intermediate Periods, volunteer labor was not only impractical but impossible.
Cosmetics These were the beautifying materials of ancient Egypt. From the earliest times Egyptian women employed creams and powders to brighten or color their faces. They were particularly concerned with mascara, which was used to recreate the sacred eye of re symbol on their own eyes, at once both a religious and a fashion statement. This mascara was made of malachite, or copper ore, used in the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.) and probably used for the same purpose in the Predynastic Age (before 3000 b. c.e.). During the Old and Middle Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e. and 2040-1640 b. c.e.) galena was used as mascara, and then a form of kohl (like the modern cosmetic) was popular. Mascara was either imported or obtained from a natural source near koptos. Various red pigments were used to adorn the face, mostly ochres and natural dyes. Scents from cedar and sandalwood, barks, flowers, and plants were fashionable, and perfumes were composed of rarefied fats and alcohol or oils.
Most royal or noble women took care not to allow the sun to darken their faces, and in funerary paintings they were depicted as fair-skinned. The cosmetics of the women were kept in beautifully carved boxes, or in chests made out of ivory or other precious materials. Spoons, palettes for grinding powders, brushes for mascara, and small tubes for ointments to adorn the lips have been found, as well as combs, mirrors, and various trinkets for wigs and hair.
Cosmogony This was the body of creation traditions of Egypt, legends that assumed political and religious significance in each new age of the nation. The number and variety of these myths provide insight into the development of Egyptian spiritual values and clearly delineate the evolution of certain divine cults.
To begin with, the ancient people of the Nile did not concern themselves with doctrinal or theological purity and precision, but they did adhere to a logical progression in matters of religious significance. Spiritual consciousness and a harmonious unity, both in the individual and in the nation, were elements that kept Egyptians secure and stable. Their religious aspirations were cultic in nature, dependent upon ritual and celebration, upon renewed manifestations of ideals and values. Dogmas or doctrines did not concern the common individuals specifically. In fact, the Egyptians were uncomfortable with spiritual concepts that demanded complex logical and reasonable development. It was enough for them to see the deity, to hear his or her concerns for the land, and to mirror the cosmic harmony that their astronomical abilities had gleaned for them in the sky.
There were basic systems of creation theology in all times of Egypt’s development. They were found at HELIOPOLIS, HERMOPOLIS MAGNA, MEMPHIS, and THEBES.
Other local temples provided their own cosmogonic information, but the four major ones provided the framework for spiritual evolution in Egypt.
The basic tenets of these cosmological systems were twofold: (1) the universe was once a primordial ocean called NUN or Nu; (2) a primeval hill arose to bring life out of chaos and darkness. The cosmogonic tenets of the city of Heliopolis are available in the pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom but are scant and appear to make reference to what was common knowledge of the time. In this creation story the god atum emerges from the watery chaos called Nun. Atum made his first appearance on the hill that became the great temple at Heliopolis. By 2300 B. C.E., the god Atum was identified with re, becoming Re-Atum, symbolized by the benben or a scarab. Re-Atum began making the other divine beings of Egypt through masturbation. SHU, his son, was then spit out of his mouth, and Re-Atum vomited out tefnut.
Shu was the god of the air, and Tefnut was his consort, also considered to represent moisture and order in the material world. Both of these deities were associated with the legends concerning the Eye of Re-Atum. This Eye was responsible for the birth of human beings and was the symbol of the sun. Atum lost Shu and Tefnut, and when he found them again, his tears became humans. Shu and Tefnut gave birth to geb, the earth, and NUT, the sky. They, in turn, gave birth to ISIS, OSIRIS, neph-THYS, and SET. All of these divine beings, with Re-Atum, formed the ennead (the nine) of Heliopolis. In some eras the Ennead also included horus.
In the city of Hermopolis Magna, the cosmogonic decrees held that the original gods were formed as an OGDOAD (octet). These were nun, the primeval ocean, and his consort Naunet (the male depicted as a frogheaded man and the woman as having a serpent’s head); HEH and Hauhet represented darkness; Kuk and Kauket (or Nia and Niat, representing nonentity) and amun and his consort amaunet represented concealment. This Ogdoad was responsible for the “Golden Age” before humans in the Nile Valley. Amun became popular because of his role in stirring up the waters and the darkness to cause life. The original appearance of the god took on great significance in temple lore, and the original sites associated with Amun’s creation were called PRIMEVAL MOUNDS. The Hermopolitan cosmogony included the appearance of a cosmic egg laid by a celestial GOOSE or an ibis. A popular tradition from this time was that of the lotus, which brought the god re to the world. The Ogdoad of Hermopolis concerned themselves with the rising of the sun and the inundation of the Nile, both vital to Egypt’s prosperity.
The Memphite creation story was very old and complex; ptah was the creator of the entire world according to the Memphite priests. The Ennead of Heliopolis and other divinities were only manifestations of Ptah’s creative powers. Ptah was the Heart and the Tongue, the seat of the intellect and the weapon of creative power. As atum spat out the gods in other creation tales, he did so at Ptah’s command, the result of the will of Ptah. Sia was the power of understanding, and Hu was the creative force of Ptah’s words. This cosmogonic theory was sophisticated and demanded a considerable amount of metaphysical awareness, something that defeated the cult from the beginning. Ptah was the creative principle, fashioning not only the world and human beings but moral and ethical order. Ptah had not only made the other gods but had instituted the formulas for their worship, offerings, rituals, and ceremonies. Ptah made the cities and the men and women who inhabited them, and he set the standards for personal and national behavior. In time Ptah was joined with OSIRIS, to extend his reign even into the afterlife, as he was also united with sokar.
The Theban cosmogony was late in arriving on the scene, coming into fullness in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.). The priests of amun, understanding the need for a creation story that would provide their deity with rank and privileges above the other gods of Egypt, used the original concept of Amun as the air divinity of Hermopolis Magna. Thebes became the first Primeval Mound, the original “pay land,” the place of “the Appearance of the watery chaos and the creation of all life.” Amun created himself in Thebes, and all the other gods were merely manifestations of him. He was Ptah, the lotus, the Ogdoad. Amun then became tatenen, the Primeval Mound of Memphis. Thebes also assumed OSIRIS into its domain, claiming that the god was born in the New Kingdom capital.
Council of Ten A unit of government for the territory of Upper Egypt, working with “the Officials of Nekhen,” this council, which had a counterpart in the Delta area of Lower Egypt, handled NOME affairs and served as the crown’s liaison to the djadjet, an assembly of nomarchs, or hereditary lords of the provinces.
See also government.
Crocodile This was an animal revered by the ancient Egyptians as a theophany of the god sobek. Sobek was worshiped in gebelein, dendereh, and sais. Particular honor was given to the crocodile in the faiyum. Crocodiles eventually were kept in pools or in small lakes, where priests tended to their daily needs. Some of the animals wore crystal or golden earrings, and some had bracelets on their forepaws. When they died they were embalmed with care.
Crocodiles were plentiful in the early period. A legend stated that aha (Menes) of the First Dynasty (2920 B. C.E.) was befriended by one of them when attacked by enemies in the Faiyum. The embalmed remains of these animals were discovered in the tomb of amenemhet iii (r. 1844-1797 B. C.E.) and elsewhere. kom ombo was an important center for the crocodile cult in later times. At CROCODILOPOLIS, renamed Arsinoe in the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 B. C.E.), crocodiles were displayed for religious ceremonies and as attractions for visitors.
Crocodilopolis An ancient Egyptian site, originally called Shedet, then Arsinoe, and now Medinet el-Faiyum. A tradition states that aha (Menes; 2920 b. c.e.) founded Crocodilopolis. The city served as the capital of the FAIYUM and was the cultic center for the crocodile deity SOBEK. An agricultural center watered by the bahr yusef (the Joseph River, honoring a local hero of Islam), the city also had a shrine honoring the goddess renenet. A temple discovered on this site dates to the reign of AMEN-EMHET iii (1844-1797 b. c.e.), but it was probably finished by him, having been started by senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b. c.e.). There is some speculation that the red granite obelisk at abgig was once part of this temple. RAMESSES ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) restored the temple of Sobek. During the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b. c.e.), the city was named for Queen arsinoe and served as an important cultic center for Sobek. Visitors to the city fed crocodiles nurtured there. There were various mines in the area of Crocodilopolis, exploited throughout Egypt’s history. The site also had a sacred lake and baths.
Croesus (d. 546 b. c.e.) King of Lydia (modern Turkey)
He ruled from c. 560 b. c.e. until his death. A member of the Mermnad line, Croesus conquered mainland ionia of Greece and then faced the Persian king, cyrus ii the Great. Retreating to his capital of Sardis, croesus was besieged there by cyrus ii and sentenced to death by burning. However, having been spared, he entered the service of cyrus ii and was made the governor of Barene in Media. He also accompanied cambyses (r. 525-522 b. c.e.) when that Persian ruler entered Egypt.
Crook A royal symbol, the awet, carried by the rulers of ancient Egypt, representing the early shepherds, the scepter had magical powers and represented traditions of the past and the government. The crook was carried with the flail, called the nekhakha, which represented osiris and MiN.
Crowns These were the various royal headdresses used by the rulers of ancient Egypt for specific ceremonies or rituals. The white war crown of Upper Egypt, the hedjet, was combined with the deshret, the red wicker basket crown of Lower Egypt, to form the wereret, the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. Called pachent or pschent by the Greeks, the crowns represented the pa-ekhemty, the double magic of the pharaohs. The rulers also wore the seshed, the crown covered with a filet of ribbon with a bow at the back and fluttering pennants. A cobra, wadjet, was used as an insignia in the front of a circlet, which had bows shaped like the timbrels of the PAPYRUS plant.
The ram’s horn crown, called both the atef and the hemhemet, depending upon their style and use, was a ritual head covering and was worn only on solemn occa-
The crowns of Egypt's kings: (a) deshret, the basket crown of Lower Egypt; (b) hedjet, the white war helmet of Upper Egypt; (c) pschent or wereret, the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt; (d) khepresh, the electrum war helmet; (e) atef or hemhemet, ram's horn crown.
Sions when the ruler wished to be connected with osiris and RE in rituals. The nemes, the striped head cloth designed with panels extended on the front, was worn only by the pharaohs. The khephresh, the military crown, was made of electrum and was blue in color, worn on campaigns or in triumphal processions.
Cult centers These were the ancient Egyptian sites where the gods were honored with special rites or ceremonies, and where temples were erected for their devotion. Each town had its own particular deity, but these were the centers of the major gods:
World History
