The speed of travel along these well-engineered roads strikes us as almost unbelievably slow. Casson estimates that a person, traveling by foot on level ground, would go on average fifteen to twenty miles (24-32 km) per day (Casson 1974: 188). Thus, on his forced march from Antioch to Rome, Ignatius would have spent eighty-six days walking and nine days aboard ship (Ramsay 1904: 384-6). In a carriage, one could reasonably expect to cover twenty-five to thirty miles a day (40-48 km) at a rate of four miles (6.5 km) an hour. Under duress, this rate might increase to as much as forty or forty-five miles (65 or 72.5 km) per day, but not for long (Chevallier 1976: 188). While horses were the swiftest means of conveyance, they were costly to purchase and maintain. Donkeys were useful, especially in mountainous regions, but the load they could carry was significantly less than that of a horse (K. D. White 1984: 129). By far the most popular animal for traveling was the mule, a cross between a horse and a donkey that combined the best features ofboth. In the eastern provinces, dromedaries were also used (Egeria, It. 6. 1-2; Casson 1988: 356; Bagnall 1993: 38-40). They could carry twice as much as a mule and at greater speed (Coulston 2001: 112).
While a variety of vehicles were available, a number of technological problems slowed their progress. Traction was generally poor without ‘‘dished’’ wheels that could grip the crowned road surface (Chevallier 1976: 89; Forbes 1955: 138). A fixed front axle demanded a slow, wide arc on every turn. Without ball or roller bearings, or cost-effective lubrication, wheel hubs were vulnerable to friction from the axle (Harris 1974; Casson 1988: 356). Steep gradients posed a real danger for heavily laden wagons, since neither efficient bits nor brakes had been invented. There was the further danger of an animal slipping on slick sections of the stone-paved road (Polge 1967: 28-34). Horse ‘‘shoes’’ were first designed to improve traction rather than to protect sensitive hooves (Apul. Met. 4. 4, 9. 32; Green 1966). Finally, none of the wheeled conveyances had any suspension system. Given the bone-jarring prospect of long-distance driving, most people preferred to walk.
The laborious difficulty of travel over land is graphically summed up in the prices for conveyance of goods. From Diocletian’s Price Edict of ad 301, A. H. M. Jones has calculated that a wagonload of wheat doubled its price every 300 miles (482 km) (Jones 1964, ii: 841; see Yeo 1946). At such a rate, it was far cheaper to bring wheat to Rome from Egypt by ship than to carry it even seventy-five miles (120 km) by road. Personal travel was also costly. Apuleius writes that the outlay necessary for Lucius’ trip from Corinth to Rome ‘‘melted away his humble inheritance’’ (Apul. Met. 11. 28). For the nonelite, travel also meant time away from land and livelihood (Adams 2001: 147).
To the expected difficulties and delays of travel, we must add the danger of bandits. Suetonius and Strabo praise Augustus for suppressing brigandage (Suet. Aug. 32; Strabo, Geograph. 4. 6. 6), but Luke’s story of the Good Samaritan takes for granted the likelihood of robbers setting upon travelers on deserted stretches of road (Luke 10:30; see 2 Cor. 11: 26; Plin. HN6. 25; Artemidorus, 3. 5; Apul. Met. 1. 7; Adams 2001: 154; Isaac 1984). In ad 296, a soldier wrote to his wife: ‘‘Bring your gold jewellery with you, but don’t wear it!’’ (P. Mich. 214). Poorer travelers were always more vulnerable to assault than the rich who typically traveled with a retinue and might have the resources to hire a military escort (Lucian, Alex. 55). Some routes were best avoided altogether; Basil of Caesarea was astonished that no one had warned the priest Dorotheus about the road to Rome from Constantinople (Basil, Ep. 215; see August. Conf. 3. 8. 16, 7. 21. 27; Tert. De resurr. 43). In addition to bandits, drunks could be a problem (Adams 2001: 154). Other perils included roving packs of wolves or fierce dogs (Apul. Met. 8. 15-17; 9. 36), bridges in ruinous disrepair (Procop. Aed. 5. 5), and avalanches (Strabo, Geograph. 4. 6. 6).
World History
