The historical account of the ancient Near East begins with the fourth millennium BC, though evidence for human habitation is attested as early as 10,000 bc, when different peoples lived in small settlements, adhering to an agricultural lifestyle (Nissen 1988; Pollock 1999; CAH3 I). But in contrast to the preceding millennia, the fourth millennium witnessed two decisive changes in the existing societies - the foundation of large settlements and the appearance of writing (Van de Mieroop 1999; Liverani 1993; Nissen et al. 1993; Schmandt-Besserat 1992). With the creation of the city-states of Mesopotamia, ancient Near Eastern societies reached a new height in the history of mankind: these were self-governed and economically self-sufficient cities with a hierarchical social structure, an extensive administration, and a rich and complex religious and cultural community. Within the advanced stage of self-government we observe the appearance of concepts of (divine) kingship, and the ruler’s role as guardian of his city who endeavors to enhance the city’s splendor by initiating building programs and increasing his subjects’ prosperity by improving agricultural production through the construction of irrigation channels and underground canals, as well as encouraging international trade and commerce. The latter led to the construction of trade routes which connected Mesopotamia with Anatolia and western Asia Minor, with Egypt and Arabia, as well as India (cf. CAH3 I: 131-33; Kuhrt 1995: 20).
Though the societies of Mesopotamia and the Near East were diverse, and developed continuously over the next centuries and millennia into increasingly complex social groups and classes, we principally find a hierarchical society with the king as the center of political power. The king ruled with the divine sanctioning of the god or gods, under whose protection his city stood. Unlike Egyptian pharaohs, who by their very office were divine beings, Near Eastern kings did not necessarily regard themselves as gods. The king was surrounded by an extensive court which included members of his immediate family - the king’s mother, the royal wives, his sons and daughters, as well as concubines, and members of the aristocracy, who served as high officials and courtiers. Though linked to the king and the palace, the priesthood of the city temples constituted a further important group within that society. Temples, and the sacred enclosures within which they stood, were the dominating feature of Near Eastern cities, often erected on high, raised platforms. These ziggurats housed the cult statues of the gods, and it was the responsibility of the high priest, the king, and the priesthood, to observe religious festivals and to perform religious rituals in the presence of the populace. Like the palaces, the temples conducted their own administration and economy, and it is not surprising, therefore, that much of the scribal tradition centers on both these institutions. A further level of society was made up by the citizenry, who included landowners, farmers, and peasants, as well as craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and traders. Prisoners of war and slaves were among the unfree population.
The Near East was inhabited by many different peoples speaking a variety of languages and dialects. In Mesopotamia two main languages can be identified: Sumerian, which was spoken in the south, and Akkadian, a Semitic language, which was used in the northern region. The earliest people attested in the written sources were the Sumerians. The initial view that they had migrated to the area from the East around the fourth millennium bc has now made way to the idea that they most likely had inhabited that region for centuries, if not millennia (Bottero 2001: chap. 1). With the appearance of the Sumerians, the history of Near Eastern civilizations begins a decisive new phase, characterized by the formation of large cities and states. The simultaneous invention of writing was a revolutionary achievement which transformed this society. Sumerian is neither a Semitic nor an Indo-European language. It is written in cuneiform script, using a reed stylus on clay, though other writing media, such as writing boards, were also used. While the earliest documents support the idea that writing grew out of the need for economic record keeping, including receipts and accounts (cf. Schmandt-Besserat 1992; Nissen 1993), it quickly became a fundamental tool to commit religious and literary texts to written form. Our oldest literary texts originate in Sumerian society, though they are best preserved in Old Babylonian copies. The most important of these texts is the Epic of Gilgamesh, the story of the eponymous hero of Uruk, whose actions are driven by his fear of death, and whose quest for immortality leads him on a journey in which he experiences the full scope of human emotions - friendship, loss, upheaval, and, finally, acceptance and contentment. In another literary text, the Story of the Flood, in which the gods sent a deluge to punish man, we recognize the immediate antecedent of the biblical story of Noah and the Flood (for the texts, A. George 1999).
Among the cities of southern Mesopotamia Uruk defines the change from settlement to city most strikingly. At the end of the fourth millennium bc it was the largest city of the region, covering c.100 ha, compared to other cities such as Ur, Lagash, and Nippur, which covered between 15 and 50 ha.; by c.2800 bc Uruk covered an area of c.494 ha. (Van de Mieroop 1999: 37). The prerequisites which allow a large group of people to live in such a formation determine that such a society is highly advanced, able to secure the food supply for a sizeable community, and to allow a division of labor in which work could be specialized and professions developed. The emerging economy needed skillful and professional managing, requiring a highly organized administrative system, in which scribes, accountants, and administrators were employed within the city’s public and private spheres, serving in temple and palace archives, as well as in the archives of private businessmen.
World History
