Despite the limited number of archaeological remains of Buddhism from the sixth through third centuries bce, a great deal is known of the general archaeology and history of this period (see Allchin 1995; Basham 1967; Ray 1986; Singh 2008; Thapar 1997, 2002; see Figure 3.1). In archaeological and historical studies in India, the sixth through third centuries BcE roughly correspond to the beginning of the Early Historic Period (c. 600 bce-200 ce). There is no clear break between the Early Historic Period and the preceding Vedic Period in North India. The selection of 600 bce as the start of the Early Historic Period in the Gangetic Plain has more to do with an increase in the available historical sources than with any clear archaeological boundary. It is worth noting, however, that no existing Buddhist textual sources date to the life of the Buddha or the centuries immediately after his death. As discussed in Chapter 1, Buddhist and non-Buddhist textual sources that report on the Early Historic Period were collated as much as a millennium later. Since the extant versions were written in periods with much greater political centralization and stratification, it is likely that they project later political and religious attitudes into earlier time periods (see Thapar 2000).
Figure 3.1: Archaeological sites discussed in Chapter 3
Thapar (1966, 1984, 2002) has argued that at the start of the Early Historic Period, polities of the Gangetic Plain included both kingdoms and republics. Polities with more autocratic and prominent kings at their centers dominated the heart of the Gangetic Plain. In the peripheries surrounding these kingdoms, polities retained the communal leadership that characterized the Vedic period. Here assemblies were created of village and tribal leaders who made communal decisions for these early republics. The Buddha was born to the chief of one of these Early Historic Period republics (the Shakyas) in what is now southern Nepal.
More recently, several scholars have argued that these early republics and kingdoms can be subsumed within a broader rubric of city-states (see Chakrabarti 1995, 2001; Erdosy 1995; Kenoyer 1997). In this view, small states centered at individual cities were in constant communication and conflict with one another. Periodically one city-state might gain advantage over others, but territorial expansion was just as often followed by withdrawal. Particularly in the plains, cities began to build elaborate defensive walls. Merchants, traders, craftspeople, and religious specialists augmented the bulk of the population, who remained agriculturalists. Vedic rituals from earlier periods continued to be practiced, but during the Early Historic Period, a wide variety of religious traditions emerged to challenge the orthodoxy of Brahmanism that continued the practice of Vedic rituals.
Textual sources that report on the Early Historic Period mention numerous wandering ascetics propounding a bewildering variety of religious views. Over time, some of these wandering ascetics began to attract followers and settle in small monasteries throughout the India. Of these sects, Jainism and Buddhism became major religions that persist to this day. Originating in the sixth century bce, they share many common doctrinal and ritual elements. Both saw the world in which we live as an illusion, both sought to end the cycle of rebirth, and both saw the cessation of rebirth as achievable through meditation and ritual acts. Both also downplayed the importance of caste in their teachings. Thapar (2002) has suggested that this allowed Jains and Buddhists to engage in trade more easily than Brahmans, who were forced to follow strict caste prohibitions. The result was that both Buddhism and Jainism thrived in the developing cities of the Gangetic Plain and spread rapidly from city to city from the fifth through third centuries bce.
In sum, the picture that emerges of religious practice in the beginning of the Early Historic Period is of multiple overlapping religious sects, all competing for the support of the laity. Of these, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism have survived to this day in some form. Other sects (e. g., Ajivikas and Charvakas) have not (Basham 1967; Thapar 2002). While this book focuses on Buddhism, Buddhism was only one of many religious traditions in simultaneous practice throughout India. Given the similarities in the doctrinal beliefs and ritual practices of these different religions, it is often difficult to separate the material remains of different religions. For example, while today stupas are associated with Buddhism, Jains also built and worshiped at stupas. Thus, in addition to all the standard problems of archaeological identification (e. g., dating, preservation, etc.) when evaluating the material evidence of early Buddhism, archaeologists must always be aware that specific remains could be the product of multiple religious sects.
World History
