Nelly Hanna
It is often thought that the nineteenth century, as a result of the French Expedition (1798-1803) and the reform policies of Muhammad ‘Ali (1805-48) and his successors which were influenced by European models, brought an end to the influence of Ottoman and Turkish culture. The introduction of a new educational system inspired by the French lycee model, the educational missions for students to study in Europe, and the creation of cultural institutions like the Opera House and the Cairo Museum—all these innovations support this view. Thus, although the presence of Turks in the army and the administration is well documented, their role in the cultural scene is an aspect that has not been explored in any depth. Modernity is linked to the influence of European structures in administration, in the economy, and in culture. Consequently, the Turkish influence decreased and retracted from the various facets of Egyptian life. The Turkish and Ottoman dimension has, in short, been largely absent from this narrative.
This view of Turkish and Ottoman influence on the developments of the nineteenth century can be attributed to different factors. At the end of the nineteenth century, a negative attitude toward Turks and Turkish influences became apparent. It was partly due to the growing influence of Europeans and European culture, which culminated with the British military occupation (1882), as the new rulers needed to legitimize their own presence. It was also partly due to the sad state of the Ottoman Empire during the last years of its existence. Hence, the history of the period was written in the context of a growing opposition to Turkish and Ottoman culture. Historical writings reflected the political conditions of the time.
Professor ihsanoglu’s book rectifies some of these views and misconceptions. It shows not only that Turkish culture survived for most of the nineteenth century, but that, in fact, it grew and expanded to a much higher level than had been the case when Egypt was under direct Ottoman rule. The author argues his point mainly through his detailed empirical study of education and the publication of books, of which he has extensive knowledge. Professor ihsanoglu, for example, shows that prior to the nineteenth century, Turkish was not commonly used as the language of education, but with the new policies of Muhammad ‘Ali, many more people were exposed to this language than had been the case earlier. With a wealth of detail, we see that Turkish was being taught in Egyptian schools and in some of the technical schools that Muhammad ‘Ali established; it was used in the army; both Arabic and Turkish were used in the administration. Likewise, this study reveals how, with the establishment of printing presses, the number of books published in the Turkish language grew impressively.
Thus, although one usually links Turkish culture to the Turkish ruling class, in fact The Turks in Egypt argues that nineteenth-century conditions resulted in its spread to other social groups—the local Egyptian elite as well as a broader sector of the population. Ultimately, what the book shows is that Turkish culture became integrated into the local Egyptian culture and that it should not be viewed as standing outside of it. In music, in clothing, in dance, and in cuisine, there were mutual exchanges and influences.
At the end of the century, and especially following the British occupation (1882), the political and cultural climate changed as the new rulers tried to impose their own language. In 1888 the language of instruction in schools became English, French, or another European language, and local elites began to speak English or French as the languages of educated communication.
Professor ihsanoglu has made extensive use of the catalogues of the National Library (Dar al-Kutub), with which he is very familiar, of the books printed in Egypt, including the presses which published books in Turkish, and of Turkish-language newspapers. All these are sources which few, if any, scholars have used to write nineteenth-century cultural history. He has shown some of the ways in which these can be used. Scholars who work on nineteenth-century culture in Egypt, on the history of books and publishing, or on the history of education, will find a wealth of information on these subjects.
Department of Arab and Islamic Civilizations The American University in Cairo
Xiv Foreword to the English Edition
World History
