APPENDIXES

1. How an Archaeological Site Is Formed

To understand the relationship between the Roman weapons and coins recovered at Kalkriese and the event that took place there in A. D. 9, we must consider how an archaeological site is formed (see map 9). An archaeological site does not reflect directly what happened at a place. Several transformations between an event and the recovery of material remains from that event by archaeologists alter the character of an archaeological deposit. Some of these transformations are cultural—caused by people—others are natural.

In the case of a battlefield, deposition of materials takes place when projectile weapons land on the ground, when fighters fall with their weapons and equipment, and when they drop their weapons and flee. After battles, the victors, or inhabitants of the surrounding countryside, typically collect everything that they see and can use from the field. The great majority of objects that fall to the ground during a battle never become buried to form part of an archaeological deposit.

Some objects are not collected by the survivors. Items deemed to be ofno value are left on the surface. Bodies of combatants are likely to be consumed quickly by wild animals or slowly by bacteria. Organic materials such as textiles and wood decay. Iron and bronze left on the surface oxidize and disintegrate within a few years, depending upon the local chemical and moisture conditions. Small objects such as personal ornaments, buttons, and coins may be overlooked, particularly in high grass or in marshy environments. Some objects fall in hollows, in pits in the surface, and in stream beds where they are not readily visible. All such objects are likely to become buried through natural processes of deposition by wind, water, and vegetation, and thus become part of an archaeological deposit.

The important point is that the objects that archaeologists recover survive in the ground as a result of specific conditions of deposition and preservation. In order to interpret the meaning of archaeological finds recovered on a site, the archaeologist must understand those conditions and the transformations that the objects underwent between their use by living people and their discovery by archaeologists.

2. Roman Weapons Found at the Kalkriese Battle Site

In chapter 3, I noted briefly the character of Roman weapons that have been recovered at Kalkriese. Here I present more detail about some of them.

Most of the weapons that were used in hand-to-hand combat are represented by remains of typical iron blades and bronze attachments or trim. But one set of scabbard parts stands out as exceptional. About one and a quarter mile northwest of the Oberesch were found parts of a sword scabbard and of a sword belt, all made of silver. They include three clamps that held the two sides of the scabbard in place, all three with settings that held gems, in one case a carved garnet. Other silver pieces were a chape, attaching to the base of the scabbard, and a decorative disk. The owner of this silver-bearing weapon was surely a Roman officer, probably a centurion.

Among defensive weapons, in addition to those mentioned in chapter 3, are hooks used to attach chain mail, pieces of armor plate, buckles, and hinges from articulated armor. Metal parts of shields include typical iron and bronze elements, and also silver and gold trim, indicating officer rank. Parts of military belt hooks and belt attachments include objects made of bronze, some of them silver plated, and some objects of solid silver.

Many of the boots, represented by large numbers of iron nails, were left lying on the battlefield by the plunderers, because neither the shoes nor the iron in the nails was worth the trouble to recover. At one spot near the sod wall, the excavators found the forms of three boot soles, with nails still in place (about 120 per boot). These boot remains probably mark the exact spot where two soldiers fell.

Personal ornaments associated with the Roman legionaries include about one hundred fibulae, decorative pins worn on the shoulder to hold garments together. Most are bronze, but some are iron. Several iron finger rings hold inset gems.

Horses and mules—the cavalry mounts and the draft animals of the legions—are represented both by their bones (see chapter 3) and by metal objects that formed parts of their harnesses. Iron rings, bronze pendants (some decorated with silver), and iron spurs were standard components of cavalry equipment. Bronze rein fittings and attachments for yokes served as parts of the traction system for the mules that pulled the baggage wagons.

3. Museums, Roman Remains, and Archaeological Parks

A number of museums in Germany have excellent displays of materials pertaining to the subject of this book. All have websites that give their hours and tell about special exhibitions, often in

English as well as German, and some have maps showing how to find them.

The Museum and Park Kalkriese, Venner Strasse 69, Bramsche, is situated on the battle site. The museum displays many of the objects recovered through excavation on the site and the park provides visitors with a good idea of what the area was like in A. D. 9.

Especially good displays of Roman material, both military and civilian, are at the following museums:

Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Colmantstrasse 14-16, Bonn Westlalisches Romermuseum Haltern, Weseler Strasse 100, Haltern Romisch-Germanisches Museum, Roncalliplatz 4, Koln (Cologne) Landesmuseum Mainz, Grosse Bleiche 49-51, Mainz Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Weimarer Allee 1, Trier Regionalmuseum Xanten, Kapitel i8,Xanten

In the cities of Koln (Cologne), Mainz, and Trier, extensive stone and brick structures of the Roman period are still visible. Many guidebooks provide maps and descriptions of the Roman remains. Just outside the small city of Xanten is an extensive archaeological park with reconstructed buildings, workshops, Roman-style restaurants, and demonstrations (Archaologischer Park Xanten, Wardter Strasse, Am Amphitheater, Xanten).

Displays of material from settlements, cemeteries, and ritual deposits of the early Germans from around the time of the battle are in these museums:

Helms-Museum, Hamburger Museum fur Archaologie und die Geschichte Harburgs, Museumsplatz 2, Hamburg

Niedersachsisches Landesmuseum Hannover, Willy-Brandt-Allee 5, Hannover

Archaologisches Landesmuseum, Schloss Gottorf, Schleswig

Related materials can be seen at museums in Denmark, especially the following:

Forhistorisk Museum Moesgard, Moesgard Alle 20, Arhus National Museum, Ny Vestergade 10, Copenhagen Haderslev Museum, Dalgade 7, Haderslev