Beyond the court aristocracy, the state classified individuals as commoners or slaves. The commoners were the backbone of the Nara state, producing the necessary goods and services for its maintenance. Most were rice farmers, but there were also fishing communities and regional specialists in mining, salt production, and transportation. Under the strict conditions of the Taiho and Yoro Codes, the number of households in a village was defined as 50, each household having between 10 and 25 people related by blood or through marriage. The lowest stratum of this rigid social spectrum was composed of five classes of slaves. one group was assigned to the maintenance of the royal mausolea. The state as well as wealthy commoners could own slaves. others were kept to work in temples. it was possible to buy and sell the state-owned or privately owned chattel slaves.
The commoners were required to pay a proportion of their rice production to the state. This was not onerous in itself, amounting to about 5 percent of their crop, but they were also required to transport it to the provincial collection point or to the capital. However, the taxation system became onerous when it is considered that commoners also had to supply labor for construction projects, such as roads or bridges, or for work in the capital. This requirement applied to men aged between 17 and 65 and could be remitted by the payment of additional rice. The amount required to buy out such a demand was related to the age of the individual in question. Further payments were required on the production of other necessities, such as fabric, particularly silk. lacquer, paper, and salt likewise fell into this category. That such a system worked can be seen in the surviving mokkan from the elite households in the capital. These record the inflow of goods from these rural communities. one of the most onerous and unwelcome of all demands was conscription for military service. This could take a man away from his home for lengthy periods to garrison the northern frontier in Kyushu or guard the palace. Although the length of service was specified, this limited period was often ignored by the authorities.
Markets and Trade
The bureaucratic stranglehold on the Nara state also applied to the marketplace. Two large markets were located in the eastern and western parts of the capital, and each provincial center likewise had a market linked with the ports and production points. But the state prescribed the amount that could be paid and provided a system of weights and measures. Following the Tang dynasty system, the state also issued coinage to facilitate transactions. This received considerable impetus from the discovery of copper ore in Japan in 708 c. e. Little is known regarding the presence or emergence of a merchant class during the move toward a copper currency system. However, it is known that temple authorities would loan copper cash to individuals to assist in trading ventures in anticipation of profit and that ships were used to transport a range of goods. A copper currency also assisted in land development through the foundation of shoen, estates that could be owned by private individuals, or temples, where laborers were often remunerated by cash wages.
INFLUENCE FROM CHINA AND KOREA
The importance of continental influence on the Nara state was profound. The capitals, for example, were modeled on Chinese cities, such as Chang’an. The writing system of Japan was introduced from China and Korea, while Buddhism reached Japan through the aegis of Korean monks in the middle of the sixth century c. E. The adoption of an alien writing system led directly to the publication of the two early histories of Japan, the Kojiki and the Nihongi. Both resulted from royal orders, and they appeared within eight years of each other in the early eighth century. Buddhism was also a key factor in the early development of literacy, prince shotoku and Soga no Imako, for example, founded Buddhist temples. Each was equipped with a building for storing sacred manuscripts.
In 713 C. E., the tenno (reigning emperor) Gemmei commissioned the compilation of documents recording the traditions, geography, and natural resources of the provinces that made up the Nara state. The fragments that survive reveal a lively interest in antiquarian matters as well as folklore and facts. The origin of place names, for example, was obviously of interest at the time. It is evident too that poetry was part of the Japanese oral tradition, and with the development of a writing system, poems were set down initially in the Kaifusu of 751 c. e. This compilation of 120 poems was the product of several hands, including those of the emperor Mommu. The second compilation, dating after 759 C. E., is the massive Man’yoshu, which had just over 4,500 poems, some of considerable but unknown antiquity. poetry also went hand in hand with music. It is known that court dance and musical performances drew on a wide range of stringed instruments, including zithers, lutes, and harps. There were also mouth organs, panpipes, sets of bells, drums, and flutes.
In 781 C. E. after a period of intense intrigue over the succession, Prince Yamabe became the tenno Kammu. Three years later, a decision was taken to abandon Heiko-kyo for a new capital at Nagaoka, bringing to an end the period of the Nara state—the seminal phase in the development of a distinctly Japanese civilization.
See also confucius; nintoku.
Further reading: Brown, D. M. The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; Kiyotari, T. ed. Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Japan. Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1987; Totman, C. A History of Japan. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Nasik Nasik is located northeast of Mumbai (Bombay) in western Maharashtra state, India. The site is a series of Buddhist sanctuaries, of which the earliest is probably the Pandulena vihara, or meeting hall, dating to the second or first century b. c.e. An inscription at the entrance declares that the sculptures over the doorway were paid for by the villagers of Dhambika. Within the hall takes the form of a long rectangle flanked by octagonal columns, with a stupa at the far end. Ceiling beams carved in stone take the form of wooden prototypes. The Gautamiputra vihara is so called because of an inscription recording that it was dedicated to the monks by Bal-asiri, the mother of the satavahana king Gautamiputra satakarni. The lintel contains fine Buddhist scenes, including the bodhi tree under with the Buddha found enlightenment, the “wheel of the law” (dharmacakra), and stupas. Within there are monks’ cells.
The Nahapana cave temple includes an important historical inscription that records how Ushavadata, the son-in-law of King Nahapana, founded not only this temple but provided for the establishment of rest houses and river ferries in the area. He also engaged the local guild of weavers to make garments for the monks.
Nausharo Nausharo is a settlement of the INDUS valley CIVILIZATION, located on the Kachi Plain of Baluchistan between Iran and India. It is only six kilometers (3.6 mi.) south of the important site of mehrgarh. Excavations by Jean-Francois Jarrige have revealed a long sequence in which the early settlement corresponds to Mehrgarh Period VII. Radiocarbon dates place this Period 1A-C occupation in the first half of the third millennium B. C.E. The excavators uncovered the remains of mud-BRICK houses and storerooms grouped around courtyards embellished with pillars of mud brick. The occupants were already familiar with copper metallurgy; finds included a large bronze spear and a seal. During Period 1D, there are signals that the culture was developing into the mature phase of the Indus civilization. Houses were now raised on mud-brick platforms, while the ceramics were decorated with typical designs of the large Indus sites, such as fish and pipal trees. There was a severe episode of burning at the end of Period 1. Periods 2 and 3 belong to the mature period of the Indus civilization, dating from about 2300 until 2000 b. c.e.
Settlement commenced with the construction of a substantial mud-brick wall faced with plaster, which was up to seven meters (23 ft.) broad at the base and stood at least four meters (13 ft.) high. Within, the site was laid out on a grid plan, with roads up to five meters wide and intersecting lanes 1.5 meters in width. A large platform of mud brick at least 13 meters long and 4.5 meters wide was uncovered. Houses were multiroomed and grouped around courtyards. Some rooms contained large hearths and kilns. As on the Indus Plain itself, dwellings were equipped with ceramic drains and jars into which the water soaked away The excavator also identified a large canal-like structure or water reservoir. Artifacts include bull figurines, terra-cotta figurines of women, and a copper knife.
Period IV is radiocarbon dated to around 2000 b. c.e. The pottery, while still belonging to the Indus tradition, now showed a trend to regional preferences, as is found in other parts of the late Indus world.
See also amri; kot diji.
Neak Pean The island in the middle of the Northern BARAY at ANGKOR (the Jayatataka) in Cambodia housed Neak Pean, formerly known as Rajasri, one of the most beautiful Angkorian temples. It was constructed as part of the rebuilding of Angkor during the reign of King JAYAVARMAN VII (1181-1219 c. e.). The principal features of the temple are a water basin, 70 meters square (84 sq yds.), in which a circular island supports a temple shrine ringed by two naga, “snakes,” with tales entwined. This gives the temple its modern name, which means “entwined snakes.” The water from the basin gushed through the mouths of four figures into a smaller pond. In one chapel water spurted through the mouth of an elephant; in the others there were a horse, a lion, and a human. The contemporary inscriptions state that the complex is a replica of lake anavatapta, a sacred Himalayan lake imbued with miraculous curative powers to remove human sins, and pilgrims could cross the reservoir to this temple to pray and use the water to wash away the slime of their sins.
Nen Chua The site of Nen Chua is located on the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. It dates to the period when the maritime state of funan flourished on the basis of widespread trade relations linking China with Rome.
Excavations by Vietnamese archaeologists have revealed a rectangular structure in stone and brick 25.7 by 16.3 meters (84.8 by 53.7 ft.) in extent with what appear to be two internal chambers. The presence of a lingam and gold ornaments suggests that it had a religious function. There is also evidence for a complex mortuary ritual involving small BRiCK-lined chambers dug up to 2.5 meters into the ground. These held cremated remains associated with spectacular gold grave offerings. There are, for example, rectangular or oval gold leaves decorated with human forms. One person appears to have four arms and might represent harihara, the combined image of siVA and Vishnu. The radiocarbon dates from this site suggest occupation in the period 450-650 c. e.
See also angkor borei; oc eo.
Nevasa Nevasa is an important prehistoric and historic site located on the bank of the Pravara River in the state of Maharashtra, western India. It was excavated by H. D. Sankalia between 1954-56 and 1959-61. The site covers an area of 350 by 100 meters (1,155 by 330 ft.) and has revealed a long sequence, from the Paleolithic to the Muslim period, with layers belonging to the Chalcolithic, early historic, and historic, from 50 b. c.e. until about 200 c. e., when trade with Rome flourished. During this last period, Nevasa was significantly located on a major exchange route that linked the satavahana capital at Paithan with the coastal ports of Kalyana and Soppara. shards of Roman amphorae, glassware, and beads were discovered at the site. Some of the amphorae have a distinctive fabric of black sand characteristic of ceramic production centers in the Bay of Naples area and probably predate the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 c. e., which severely disrupted manufacture there.
Nihongi The Nihongi is a history of Japan up to the year 697 c. e., which originated through an imperial decree to gather historical records. It has been the most influential of such Japanese histories, often recited, quoted, or commented on since its completion in 720 c. e. It describes the history of Japan in terms of myths, legends, and oral tradition and at the same time incorporates information from earlier histories that have not survived. One source was the Katari Be, the traditional corporation of reciters who performed at the imperial court. While the earlier periods of Japanese culture are understandably based only on myth or fiction, the Nihongi is a more reliable historical source for the period after about 500 c. e., and its contents provide many insights into the activities of the court. This was the formative period when chinese and Korean influence in the forms of BUDDHISM, writing, the arts, and medicine took deep root in the archipelago. The word Nihon in Chinese characters means “rising Sun,” giving recognition to Japan’s location east of the Asian mainland.
Among courtly activities the Nihongi describes is the emperor’s passion for hunting with chariots. A passage tells of a gift of iron shields to the court and a test that followed, in which the greatest archers of the day were invited to try to pierce them. The emperor’s role in enhancing agriculture is amply demonstrated. In 446 C. E., a bridge was constructed at Wo-bashi, and a road was built in a straight line from the south gate of the capital. A great canal was excavated to take the water of the Ishikaha River to the plains of Suzuka and Toyora. This opened a huge new area to rice cultivation and ensured that the peasants no longer had to suffer periodic crop failures. A few years later, it was recorded that the people of SHILLA had not sent tributes. Inquiries were made as to the reason; afraid of retribution, Shilla sent 80 shiploads of offerings, including fine silks. The later the entry, the more historic validity can be credited to the words of the Nihongi.
The entries for the seventh century provide details of the series of legal reforms that moved Japan closer to the Chinese Tang form of government. Laws, for example, confirmed the emperor in autocratic government at a time when Tang expansion into Korea carried military threats to the doorstep of Japan. Court officials were given one of a series of grades, each conferring the right to wear a particular style of deep purple cap. With the adoption of Chinese precedents, successive rulers of YAM-ATO constructed increasingly grandiose palaces to exhibit their exalted status and power, and the text describes how they were conceived and built. The historic validity has been in many respects confirmed not only by the results of archaeological excavations at the sites it described, but also by the recovery of the MOKKAN, contemporary court records of the actual implementation of the reforms it outlined.
Further reading: Aston, W G. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to a. d. 697. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Tuttle, 1995; Totman, C. A History of Japan. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Nintoku (r. 313-399 c. e. [traditional dates]) According to traditional Japanese sources, Nintoku was the fourth son of Ojin and second king of the Ojin dynasty of the Yamato state.
This span is almost certainly in error, and it is more likely that he ruled during the fifth century c. E. The NIHONGI records that he was a victorious warrior, who also initiated major irrigation works to encourage the production of rice. In the 14th year of his reign, he inaugurated the massive ishikawa River irrigation project that transported water via a canal to thousands of hectares of formerly marginal land. He also recruited Korean specialists to work on irrigation projects and repair dykes. His kofun, or mounded tomb, is located in the city of Sakai in Osaka prefecture and has the distinction of being the largest known, with a length of 486 meters (1,604 ft.). It covers 32 hectares (80 acres) and rose to a height of 30 meters (99 ft.). Since it was built on a plain and all the earth had to be moved by hand, some of it created three surrounding moats. Such imperial tombs are not open to archaeological inspection, but the wealth of goods associated with the interment must have been very great. In 1872 a natural collapse of part of the mound revealed a stone chamber containing a coffin. It would not have been the main interment of the emperor, but it contained a Persian glass vessel and iron armor.
Nisa Nisa is a Hellenistic city foundation (second century B. C.E.) 12 kilometers (7.2 mi.) west of Ashkhabad in southern Turkmenistan that continued to be occupied during the succeeding Parthian period (up to 100 C. E.). The walls were up to 10 meters (33 ft.) wide and made of clay with a brick veneer at the front. There is a separate precinct for the royal palace. Nisa is known for the cellars of domestic buildings that were used to store wine, as well as for the large clay statues recovered during the excavations. Foremost among the works of art, however, are a set of ivory rhytons, horn-shaped drinking vessels elegantly carved at the tip with figures of centaurs, horses, and lions. The upper ends bear relief depictions of Greek gods. A unique assemblage of Parthian inscriptions, written in the Aramaic alphabet, has also been found, recording the origin and receipt of wine for the royal cellars. Excavations there in 1950-51 uncovered a large number of clay sealings bearing texts in the Parthian script, dating to the period 50 B. C.E.-100 c. e. It is thought that the sealings must have accumulated after the opening and closing of a treasury door by Parthian officials.
Niuheliang Niuheliang is a site of the hongshan culture in northeastern China and Inner Mongolia. The Hongshan culture is dated to 4700-2900 B. C.E. and is notable for the ritual nature of its surviving monuments. Sixteen so-called localities have been mapped at Niuhe-liang, 13 of which are groups of mounded burials. There are also a large mound shaped as a pyramid that covers one hectare in area, a female spirit temple, and a building of which only the stone foundations survive. Niuheliang is one of more than 500 known Hongshan sites and joins the LIANGZHU AND YANGSHAO CULTURES in documenting an early development of rituals and mortuary wealth well before the transition to the first states.
The spirit temple has a stone foundation covering an area of 22 by nine meters (72.6 by 29.7 ft.), with internal walls of clay-plastered wood decorated with red-painted designs. Within were clay representations of female forms associated with dragons and birds. The clay was unfired, and the figures are difficult to interpret, but some of the representations were up to three times life-size. This temple and the pyramid were the focus of many large and richly endowed mounded tombs in which the dead per-
Nisa, in southern Turkmenistan, was founded as a Hellenistic city before being occupied under Parthian rule between 50 b. c.e. and about 100 c. e. (© David Samuel Robbins/CORBIS)
Son was interred in a stone-lined grave. Variations in grave goods are seen to indicate social ranking in the Hongshan communities, some of which may have led a relatively mobile herding lifestyle. The rich graves are denoted on the basis of the jades that accompanied the corpse. Thus two coiled dragons, found in Tomb 4 in Locality 2, excavated in 1984, had evidently been suspended as ornaments on the chest. This person also wore a cylindrical jade so positioned as to suggest a hair ornament. Other jades from the Niuheliang tombs include a finely carved turtle, bi disks, and plaques bearing animal masks. As with the coiled dragon image, these images and designs continued to be used in much later ornaments. Thus a coiled dragon was found in the tomb of FU HAO (r. c. 1200-1181 B. C.E.) at anyang, and the tortoise or turtle, symbolizing longevity, continues to be seen in Chinese art. Ceramic vessels were also included in burials but seem to have been less prestigious. Some were very finely painted with red designs.
Niya The site of Niya, on the southern margin of the TARIM BASIN in western China, was discovered by sir aurel STEIN in 1901 during his first major expedition to this area. Niya was one of the oasis cities that formed part of the state of SHAN-SHAN during the first centuries c. E. For the merchant traveling along the silk road linking China with India and Rome, it was possible on reaching dunhuang to set out for kaxgar by going north to avoid the Taklamakan Desert or south through Shan-shan. The latter route would have involved passing through Niya. The Silk Road saw not only the passage of goods, but also the spread of ideas as merchants moved and settled along its many transit points. By this means, buddhism became established in Shan-shan and beyond, to the great center of Dunhuang and into China itself. Niya is a vital site in documenting this phenomenon, because of the survival there of religious and domestic structures and an archive of documents, mainly on wood, dated to the third and fourth centuries C. E. These illustrate the administrative machinery of the Shan-shan state. They also help to date the period when Niya flourished, for the documents, written in KHAROSHTHI and less often in Chinese, include the name of the king and his reign date. A document describing King Sulica indicates that the site was still occupied in the fourth century C. E., but its survival, as did that of all the oases cities, depended on river water. Only one river serves Niya, and its drying up would have rendered life there untenable.
Stein suggested that it was visited in the seventh century by the Chinese monk xuanzang, who named it Nijang, but it could also have been the location of his city of Nei-nang. Contemporary documents from lou-lan to the east refer to Niya as Cadota.
The prosperity of trade on the Silk Road relied very much on the maintenance of peaceful conditions, and during periods when the Chinese exercised military control this was assured. However, at times of Chinese weakness, such as the period that followed the downfall of the Eastern HAN dynasty (c. 25-220 c. e.), the xiongnu, or steppe horsemen, made travel hazardous. Niya and the Shan-shan state exercised a limited sovereignty over the southern route in the sense that they were either Chinese clients or subjected to xiongnu pressure.
TEXTS FROM SHAN-SHAN SITES
Almost 800 texts have been found in the Shan-shan sites, the largest assemblage, 186 documents, from Site Vxv at Niya. They were written in the Kharoshthi script on slips of wood. Often these documents were two pieces of wood placed together face to face, wrapped with cordage, and sealed. Since some contain the names and reign years of kings of Shan-shan and were found associated with datable Chinese texts, it has been possible to trace the dynasty and learn that the rulers were on the throne from the early third to the middle of the fourth century. The documents also illuminate the organizational structure of the kingdom, which included districts known as rajas, under royally appointed governors, subdistricts called nagaras or avanas, and still smaller groupings called satas. Officeholders known as sothamgas were in charge of a system of taxation of payment in kind of agricultural surpluses, such as cereal crops, wine, butter, wool, carpets, and sheep. The list provides a good indication of the economy of oasis settlements such as Niya.
VINEYARD AT NIYA
The listing of wine among the taxable items in the documents received a most unusual archaeological confirmation when Sir Aurel Stein identified an ancient vineyard while exploring the ruins of Niya. It was enclosed by a fence 230 by 135 meters (759 by 445.5 ft.), within which the posts that would have supported the trellises remained in serried rows about five or six meters (16.5 to 19.8 ft.) apart. Even the vine stems survived against supporting posts. Fruit trees also grew there: apricots, peaches, apples, and walnuts. The aridity of the region and the long period of undisturbed abandonment also ensured the survival of domestic residences. Stein found, for example, that the wooden house posts were still in place, supporting wattle and daub walls. Fireplaces were intact, and the mud floors of the homes had been mixed with wheat straw and cow dung for added strength. He found much evidence for local iron smithing, and textile remains in wool, linen, and cotton revealed a long tradition of outstanding craft skill that stretched back in this region over at least 2,000 years. Even the remains of a wooden bridge still crossed the dried-out river bed. The settlement must have been very extensive, for as Stein traced the ruins along the line of the river, he found that they stretched over a distance of 25 by 10 kilometers (15 by 6 mi.).
BUDDHISM AT NIYA
The Buddhist community at Niya, according to the surviving documents, was under the wing of the main monastery at Lou-lan, for one text complained that the monks of Niya showed insufficient respect to their superiors. A second Kharoshthi text from the Shan-shan kingdom provides further insight into the day-to-day events in the life of a Buddhist community at Niya. In Cadota, the text declares, a monk named Anamdasena received a loan of corn and wine from a certain Cugopa. The slave of this monk evidently stole from the author of the text, Larsua, and Cugopa, 12 lengths of silk, two ropes, three felt garments, and four sheep. The monk was required to repay the value of the stolen goods and pay a fine designated as one cow. The whole affair was finally settled out of court when the monk gave the thief to Larsu as the equivalent of the value of the stolen items.
Stein investigated one brick stupa at Niya, finding that it was fashioned of mud brick, the dome raised on a series of square bases as in other Shan-shan stupas. It dates earlier than 300 c. E. Just as the religion and language of Niya were inspired by the West, so too were the motifs that survive on wooden furniture and architectural details. Thus a carved wooden lintel includes an image of a vase overflowing with pomegranates, a scene of Indian origin, flanked by fantastic animals. A wooden table standing 60 centimeters (2 ft.) in height and completely preserved was carved with a similar overflowing vase. The Niya wooden documents were often found bearing their original sealings, and these too show strong Western influence, not least a seal with the image of the Greek goddess Athena.
BURIALS AT NIYA
While the domestic and religious remains provide a vibrant image of life in a desert oasis in the third century C. E., much information is derived also from the mortuary remains of Niya. One burial yielded a wide range of grave goods. The double grave of a man and woman, it contained a complete silk coat of outstanding craftsmanship and woolen garments embellished with motifs matching those found on the wooden furniture. It incorporates a woven text that states: “The appearance of the five stars is favorable to China.” This text is found in late Han and Jin dynasty texts and helps to date the tomb. There were also a bronze mirror, a bow and arrow, combs, and even fragments of paper. Of particular interest in this unique assemblage is a large section of patterned cotton cloth decorated with a series of designs of Indian inspiration. These include a garland sprouting from the mouth of a mysterious beast. The most intriguing part of the decoration is the depiction of a goddess holding a cornucopium. She has been identified by several authorities as Tyche, the Greek goddess of prosperity. If this item has Western parallels, the silk coat, lacquerware, and bronze mirror in this burial were from China and date to the third century C. E.
An important new research program at Niya began in 1995. It mapped the extent of the site and investigated further tombs and houses. Eight burials were uncovered; the dead were laid out in hollowed tree trunks attired in splendid garments. Tomb 3 contained the bodies of a man and a woman. Just as in the prehistoric period in this area, the grave goods included the woman’s toilet articles, on this occasion a comb, sewing kit, and cosmetics. The man was accompanied by a bow, quiver, and metal-tipped arrows. They wore silk trousers, shirts, a hood, and embroidered leather shoes, while the woman’s jewelry was of gold and glass. The dead were also accompanied by food, including pears, grapes, and mutton.
Further reading: Burrow, T. A Translation of the Kharosti Documents from Chinese Turkestan. London: The Royal Asiatic Society 1940; Rhie, M. M. Later Han, Three Kingdoms and Western Chin in China and Bactria to Shan-shan. Leiden: Brill, 1999.
Noen U-Loke Noen U-Loke is an Iron Age site in the Mun Valley of northeast Thailand. Noen U-Loke is one of many similar moated sites in the Mun Valley, which would have participated in the exchange networks that increasingly centered on the river systems of Southeast Asia. Extensive excavations in 1997-98 revealed unprecedented evidence for the social development of an Iron Age society just before the transition to statehood. The five-meter (16.5-ft.)-deep stratigraphic sequence began in the eighth century B. C.E., and the site was abandoned in about 400 C. E. Five mortuary phases have been recognized. The first belongs to the early Iron Age, when iron was already in use for spears, jewelry, and hoes. Other mortuary offerings, which include shell and bronze ornaments, pottery vessels filled with fish, a tiger’s tooth necklace, and pigs’ limbs, indicate a considerable social investment in mortuary ritual. This grew over time, as agate, carnelian, and glass were added to the range of ornaments, and bronzes became more varied and abundant.
The peak of mortuary elaboration was reached during the fourth phase, when people were interred in graves filled with burnt rice, lined and capped with clay. Certain individuals stood out for the wealth of their grave goods. One man wore 75 bronze bangles on each arm, three bronze belts, bronze finger and toe rings, silver ear coils covered in gold, and an agate neck pendant and had an iron knife, many pottery vessels, and glass beads. A woman of the same phase wore a necklace of gold and agate beads and silver and bronze bangles. During the fifth phase, mortuary wealth declined. It is possible that by this juncture wealth and social status were concentrated in an elite group buried elsewhere on the site.
The rise of social complexity took place at a time when conflict was also increasing: One man of the final phase had been killed by an iron arrow, which was found lodged in his spine. There was also a proliferation of iron points at this juncture and a major investment in water-control measures. In the latter a series of banks constructed around the site probably acted as retaining walls for the streams flowing nearby. There was also a marked increase in exchange for exotic valuables, such as gold, silver, agate, and carnelian, which would have encouraged the development of a ruling group.
Noh The site of Noh is located southeast of mathura in the middle reaches of the Jamuna Valley in India. It was excavated in 1963-67 and revealed a long prehistoric period of occupation that terminated with the Iron Age (about 700 B. C.E.). The remains of carbonized rice and iron artifacts have been recovered. The historical period followed, with evidence for occupation during the sunga (185-73 B. C.E.) and kushan periods (78-200 c. e.). There were eight successive phases determined by the rebuilding of domestic structures in fired brick. These were associated with a drainage system and a material culture typical of the period, including toy carts, shell and glass beads, and animal and human figurines.
Northern Black Polished Ware In northern India, a distinctive variety of pottery known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) appeared in many sites over a wide area. It was first recognized and described by sir ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM during the examination of a stupa at Andher near sanchi. At the base of the stupa, he found a pottery vessel “beautifully smooth... of bright metallic lustre.” This ceramic horizon was contemporaneous with a series of cultural changes characterized by a rapid development of urbanization, the expansion of agriculture as iron implements proliferated, and a sharp population increase. The distinctive polished ware itself represents a technical advance involving firing at a high temperature under carefully controlled conditions. Given its widespread occurrence and typological changes over time, dating this type of pottery is important in relating events at different sites. Unfortunately, it is difficult to calibrate radiocarbon dates that fall within the span of NBPW, but the consensus is that it first appeared between 550 and 500 B. C.E. Early contexts to have yielded NBPW include ahicchatra, ujjain, and kausambi. Three phases in the typological development of this ware have been proposed; the middle phase lasted from 400 to 250 B. C.E., and the third ended in about 100 B. C.E.
Nulchi, King See hwangnam, great tomb of.
Nutmeg Nutmeg is the seed of the evergreen tree Myris-tica fragrans. It is a native of the Malukas (Moluccas) in Indonesia and was greatly in demand as one of the spices for which island Southeast Asia is famous. The same tree also supplies mace, part of the outer rind of the nut.
See also cloves; spice islands.
World History
