DIVISION

The death of Mongke in 1259 marked the end of the Mongol Empire as a united whole. Civil war flared between the brothers Qubilai and Ariq Buqa over the succession; the disputed accession of Berke Khan, a Muslim, in place of Batu Khan marked the beginning of open hostilities between the Persian Il-Khanate and the Golden Horde, and in 1260 the Mamluks of Egypt defeated a Mongol army at 'Ain Jalut, proving Mongol fallibility.

Qubilai Khan elected himself Qa'an (Great Khan) not at a quriltai in Qaraqomm, the Mongol capital, but in his summer capital, Shang-du (Xanadu), while Ariq Buqa proclaimed himself true ruler of the Mongols. This dispute between the brothers has been downplayed in the Persian sources, which remain the main source of information on Mongol history. They portray Ariq Buqa as a usurper and front man for the estranged and alienated tribes who had suffered in the purges following Mongke's assumption of power. Because these chroniclers were supporters of the house of Tolui, however, they were not unbiased observers, and their words must be treated carefully. In fact, Ariq Buqa represented a sizable part of the Mongol Empire, especially those who disapproved of the direction toward which their leadership was moving. The supporters of Ariq Buqa represented the more traditional-minded Mongols who remained attached to the steppe and the nomadic way of life. They saw the Toluids as having become too close to the people over whom they ruled, namely the Chinese and Persians. The civil war of the early 1260s was a battle for the soul of the Mongols, but the outcome was not decisive. When Ariq Buqa was proclaimed Qa'an, Qubilai was able to move against him with the power and wealth of China behind him. His younger brother could not match such a challenge. The year 1264 saw Qubilai Khan victorious, but he was recognized only by his brother, Hiilegii, in Iran. The Golden Horde and the Chaghedaids did not recognize his sovereignty.