Governor Johnson and his fellow progressives repeatedly declared their intent to transfer political decision-making from the parties and economic interests directly to “the people.” This was the antithesis of what many conservatives believed, namely, that the American system of government was representative rather than democratic; the common people, accordingly, were unfit to handle affairs of state. Progressives, on the other hand, adhered to a Jeffersonian faith in the goodness of human beings that when nurtured by public education would lead to the building of a just and good society. They believed that democratizing politics and subsidizing education were curatives for what ailed a state in need of reform.
Making good on the Lincoln-Roosevelt League’s platform of instituting the initiative, referendum, recall, and direct primaries, as noted, Johnson fought for and won the legislature’s approval of constitutional amendments incorporating these devices. In a special election held on October 10, 1911, voters ratified the amendments, rendering California a national leader, along with Oregon, in democratizing electoral politics at the state level. Thereafter, an initiative could be placed on the ballot when 8 percent of the voters participating in a preceding gubernatorial election signed a petition supporting a proposed measure. A referendum qualified for the ballot with 5 percent. Initiatives and referendums have had unintended consequences, in that powerful corporations and special interests (the progressives’ adversaries) have since made effective use of these instruments. The Proposition 13 initiative, for example, passed by voters in 1978 purportedly to reduce the property taxes of elderly homeowners, was pushed by commercial real-estate interests and has resulted in long-term impacts on public education and many other state services. For recalls, variable percentages were required depending on whether the official was elected by a political subdivision of California or voters statewide. The legislature in 1911 amended the Direct Primary Law of 1909, enabling voters to indicate their choice for U. S. Senator.
Displeased with political parties, while desirous of Republican support, conflicted progressives took a momentous step in securing ratification of a cross-filing amendment in 1913. Thereafter candidates could vie for nomination in the primaries of other parties as well as their own without indicating any affiliation. This measure, operative until repealed in 1959, weakened California’s political organizations. At times, uninformed voters fell prey to the deceptions of candidates whose agendas remained masked by the non-partisan label. Cross-filing’s most immediate effect was that it enabled former Republicans who had joined the new Progressive Party to file for the nominations of both parties in 1912.
Democratizing politics, per these progressive reforms, required a robust exercise of citizenship, which, in turn, necessitated a quality, state-subsidized education system to foster an informed electorate. Such a system was infused with the ideals of social philosopher John Dewey and others, which focused on educating the whole child, deemphasizing rote memorization, and creating an informal learning environment that allowed for a measure of experimentation. Aspects of this approach appeared at several levels of public education.
The kindergarten movement illustrates the application of progressivism to early childhood education. Started in Germany, the movement spread into California cities and elsewhere throughout the United States before and after 1900. Premised on the perfectibility of humans and the establishment of an environment conducive to that goal, Californian Sarah Cooper became the spokesperson for kindergartens on the Pacific Coast. Eventually, she became known as a theorist, organizer, and fundraiser of the movement nationwide and abroad. Such a pre-school experience was the best hope, Cooper held, of ameliorating the suffering and ignorance of poor children. Kindergartens, progressives believed, would put disadvantaged pre-schoolers on the road to becoming empowered, responsible citizens.
Simultaneously, junior (now called community) colleges appeared in California and throughout the nation. Progressives established these tax-supported institutions to train teachers, prepare students for university study, and provide vocational education. Founded in 1913, Fullerton College in Orange County is the oldest continuously operating two-year public college in the state.
UCLA, established in 1919 as the Southern Branch of the University of California, exemplifies the progressives’ seriousness about making higher education available to the state’s citizenry. Many of the engineers, lawyers, journalists, scientists, and other experts needed to ensure high-quality professional services and efficiency in public policy - key progressive aims - and southern California’s continued economic growth would be produced there.
World History
